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requirements of natural selection
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variation, inheritance, variable survival/reproductive success
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|
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homology
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similar origin
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bat/bird wings
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analogy
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similar structure
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butterfly wings
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apomorphy
|
derived, shared traits
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|
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plesiomorphy
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ancestral, shared traits
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|
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autapomorphy
|
derived, unique
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|
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synapomorphy
|
derived, shared in ancestry
|
|
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homoplasy
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derived, found independently in tree
|
|
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stabilizing selection
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intermediately favored, average (purifying)
|
|
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directional
|
extreme phenotype
|
|
|
disruptive
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2+ favored (diversifying)
|
|
|
genetic drift
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change in allele frequency due to chance
|
Founder- Bottleneck-
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|
gene flow
|
movement of alleles between pops
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migration, seed dispersal
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|
hardy-weinberg
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p2+2pq+q2=1
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if mutation, non-random mate, small pop size, gene flow, natural selection
|
|
pre-fertilization barrier
|
prevent fert
|
spatial, behavior, mechanical, temporal, gamete incompatibility
|
|
post
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hybrid dies
|
hybrid sterility/inviable
|
|
speciation
|
form new species
|
|
|
punctuated speciation
|
short bursts
|
|
|
graduated
|
slow changes
|
|
|
limitations of linnaean classifications
|
species may not be closely related, unrelated species placed together due to convergent evolution, related species separated, subject to reclassification if DNA indicates
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monophyletic
|
full clade
|
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paraphyletic
|
ancestral and some descendants
|
|
polyphyletic
|
not include most common ancestor
|
|
ingroup
|
species part of study
|
|
470mya
|
origin from green algae
|
|
425mya
|
traits for life on land
|
|
385mya
|
first forests
|
|
challenges for land plants
|
limited water, structural support, reproductive techniques (wind/pollinators)
|
|
benefits
|
more sunlight, carbon dioxide, soil nutrients
|
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sporophyte
|
fertilization (diploid) visibly dominant
|
all seedless vascular (eg. ferns)
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|
gametophyte
|
meiosis (haploid)
|
moss, liverwort
|
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thallus
|
plant w/o leaf, stem, roots
|
|
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asexual repro
|
produce spores in sori, spores germinate
|
|
|
sexual repro
|
prothallus produce eggs (archegonia) and sperm (antheridia), sperm fertilizes egg
|
|
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characteristics
|
roots, stems, leaves, vasc tissue, sporophyte dom, reproduce by seeds
|
|
|
benefits of seeds
|
embryo protection, food reserve for embryo, dormancy, dispersal
|
|
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benefits of pollen
|
plants are no longer dependent on water to transport sperm
|
|
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gymnosperm
|
naked seed, no flower/fruit, cones
|
cycadophyta, gingkophyta, gnetophyta, coniferophyta
|
|
fascicles
|
needle like leaf bundles (reduce stomata, need for excess photosynthesis)
|
|
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resin ducts
|
defend against predators
|
|
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angiosperm
|
vessels, seeds, fruits
|
300 families, 369400 species, dominated terrestrial environment for 100+ million years
|
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monocots
|
one cotyledon, parallel veins, scattered vascular tissue, fibrous root, floral organs in 3s
|
|
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eudicots
|
two cotyledon, reticulate vein, ringed vasc tissue, taproot, flower organs in 4/5s
|
|
|
pericarp
|
outer skin of flower (epi/meso/endocarps)
|
|
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simple fruit
|
apple
|
|
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aggregate
|
raspberry
|
|
|
multiple
|
pineapple
|
|
|
double fertilization
|
sperm (n) + egg (n) + nucleus (n) = 3n
|
|
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epidermis
|
waxy cuticle, guard cells, stomata, protective hairs, glands
|
|
|
periderm
|
replaces epiderm
|
|
|
parenchyma
|
thin walls
|
mesophyll (ground)
|
|
collenchyma
|
thick walls, flexible support
|
|
|
sclerenchyma
|
thick walls w/ lignin for support (nonliving)
|
|
|
xylem
|
water/minerals (roots to leaves)
|
both dead: tracheids (long,narrow) vessel elements (small,thick)
|
|
phloem
|
nutrients (leaves to roots)
|
sieve tube (sugars travel, living no nucleus) companion (helper)
|
|
indeterminate meristem
|
grow throughout life
|
|
|
primary
|
height (apex)
|
|
|
secondary
|
girth
|
|
|
monocot root
|
distinct rings
|
|
|
eudicot
|
star-like bundles
|
|
|
root cap
|
zone of cell division, elongation, differentiation
|
|
|
apical
|
dome shaped mass of dividing cells at shoot tip
|
|
|
vascular cambium
|
secondary growth in xylem
|
woody plants
|
|
cork cambium
|
periderm
|
all gymnosperms, many eudicots
|
|
passive transport
|
high to low concentration
|
via phospholipid bilayer, aquaporins, transporters, or channel proteins
|
|
active
|
low to high
|
via proton pumps, transport proteins (carrier proteins)
|
|
long distance bulk flow
|
through xylem/phloem
|
roots to shoots
|
|
apoplast
|
through cell wall
|
|
|
symplast
|
through cytoplasm
|
|
|
route
|
cortex via apo/sym, endodermis (checkpoint for selective passage), casparian strip (blocks apoplast transfer, to cylinder made of suberin)
|
|
|
suberin
|
complex biopolymer found on inner face of primary cell walls
|
|
|
gutlation
|
progressive absorption capacity in roots (root pressure)
|
|
|
transpiration
|
evaporation of water from stomata
|
|
|
adhesion/cohesion
|
creates water columns
|
|
|
tension
|
negative pressure created by evaporating water molecules
|
|
|
guard cells
|
open/close to balance water conservation
|
|
|
translocation
|
movement of nutrients via actively loaded phloem (source to sink)
|
by pressure flow
|
|
source
|
leaves
|
|
|
sink
|
flower
|
|
|
auxin
|
growth, fruit development, slow leaf loss, cell division
|
|
|
ehylene
|
ripen fruit
|
|
|
absisic acid
|
shed leaves, seed dormancy
|
|
|
45,000 known species, estimated 2/3 million
|
relatives to animals
|
|
|
saprotrophs
|
heterotrophs that obtain nutrients from organic material
|
|
|
non-motile
|
grow toward food source
|
|
|
mycorrhizae
|
mutualism w/ plant roots
|
|
|
mycelia
|
networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption
|
maximizes surface:volume ration (long, skinny)
|
|
multinucleate hyphae
|
1- septate, 2 - coenocytic, 1/2 - pseudo
|
|
|
cryptomycota/microsporidions
|
parasitic, freshwater, marine, soil, closely related to fungi
|
|
|
chytridomycota
|
1st to evolve, zoospores, freshwater/marine, decomposers, parasites, mutualists
|
|
|
zoopagomycota
|
nonflagellated spores, some endoparasites
|
|
|
mucoromycota
|
zygospore fungi (fast growing molds, parasite, pathogens), mycorrhizal
|
arbuscular mycorrhizae
|
|
ascomycota (sac fungi)
|
plant pathogens, decomp, symbionts (ascocorp = produce spores, conidiophores = branches)
|
8 spores per ascus
|
|
basidiomycota
|
mushrooms (basidium, basidiocarp)
|
|
|
mutualists
|
mycorrhizae, endophytes, lichen
|
|
|
protist ancestors (choanoflagellates)
|
600 mya
|
|
|
spicules
|
skeleton like structure pieces
|
|
|
mesophyll
|
semi fluid matrix w/ amoeboid cells, produce spicules
|
|
|
all chordates
|
notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post anal tail
|
|
|
monotremes
|
hard shelled amniotic egg, milk from sweat glands (no nipples)
|
platypus
|
|
marsupial
|
true pouch w/ nipples
|
koala, opossum
|
|
epithelial
|
secrete, absorb, excrete, filter
|
simple (1 layer) stratified (multiple layer)
|
|
connective
|
loose (few fiber), fibrous (semi solid, many fibers), adipose, cartilage, bone (rigid matrix), blood
|
|
|
muscular
|
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
|
|
|
negative feedback
|
keep variable close to value (do opposite)
|
sensor, control center, effector
|
|
positive feedback
|
amplifies signal
|
clotting, labor contractions
|
|
organismal
|
individual
|
anatomy/physio/behavior
|
|
populations
|
group of individuals
|
pop size (how/why)
|
|
community
|
species
|
interactions
|
|
ecosystem
|
energy flow/chem cycling
|
|
|
landscape
|
mosaic of ecosystems
|
controlling exchange
|
|
global
|
regional exchange
|
|
|
global air circulation pattern
|
colling trade winds blow from E to W in tropics (deflection of wind from vertical paths near equator)
|
30 N/S desert (dry air descends), 60 N/S wet (air mass rise, release precipitation), poles dry/frigid
|
|
gyres
|
multiple currents working together
|
|
|
biomes
|
vegetation, climate, physical (but not species)
|
|
|
ecotone
|
area of transition between biomes
|
|
|
type 1 curve
|
low death rates at birth
|
humans, elephants
|
|
type 2
|
constant death
|
squirrels, annual plants, lizards
|
|
type 3
|
high death rates at birth
|
fish, marine invert, long lived plants
|
|
semelparity
|
bing bang reproduction (once and then die)
|
annual plants
|
|
iteroparity
|
repeated reproduction
|
humans
|
|
exponential growth
|
J shaped (ideal)
|
|
|
logistic
|
S (realistic)
|
|
|
batesian
|
nonvenom pretends venomous
|
|
|
mullerian
|
bad tasting
|
|
|
aposematic coloring
|
indicate poison
|
|
|
competetive exclusion principle
|
no 2 species using exact resources can coexist
|
|
|
eco niche partition
|
separate role
|
|
|
temporal
|
opposite schedules
|
|
|
fundamental niche
|
ideal, wider area
|
|
|
realized niche
|
w/ competitor, narrow
|
|
|
character displacement
|
tendency of populations to diverge in characteristics when sympatric
|
different beak morphology
|
|
bottom up control
|
what they eat, affected by food at lower level
|
|
|
top down
|
what eats them, affected by abundance of consumers at higher levels
|
|
|
flow of energy
|
cannot be recycled
|
light
|
|
net primary production
|
amt available to consumers (1/2 of GPP)
|
|
|
terrestrial primary production
|
most in tropics (moisture, sunlight, temp, nutrients)
|
|
|
net secondary production
|
amt of emergy organism consumes/uses for growth
|
|
|
assimilation
|
amt of energy organism uses for above+respiration
|
|
|
energy transfer only 10% efficient
|
||
|
movement corridors
|
connect fragmented habitats
|
|
|
water cycle
|
enter by drinking/absorption, leave by evaporation, transpiration, peeing
|
|
|
carbon
|
enter plants via photosynthesis, return by respiration, volcanoes, fossil fuels
|
|
|
nitrogen fixation
|
conversion of unusable nitrogen to NH4 and NO3
|
|
|
assimilation
|
uptake of NH4 and NO3 by plants
|
|
|
ammonification
|
N2 to NH3 to NH4
|
|
|
nitrification
|
NH4 to NO2 to NO3
|
|
|
denitrification
|
NO3 to N2
|
|
|
phosphorus cycle
|
rock weathering adds PO4(-3) to soil, to plants, biomolecules to animals
|
|
|
decomposition/excretion
|
phosphate returned to soil/water
|
|
|
ecosystem services
|
natural ecosystems help sustain human life
|
purification, detox, nutrient cycling, moderating weather, organism interactions
|
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