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What are the similarities of the endocrine and nervous systems?
Both control systems (homeostasis and other)
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What are some differences of the nervous and endocrine systems?
Mode of communication (endo- hormones nerv- electrial signals)
Speed of response (endo- slow nerv- fast) Duration of change/response (endo- longish term nerv- gone fast) |
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Hypothalamus (control/integrator)
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releasing hormones to the anterior pituitary (blood communication) and direct connection to posterior pituitary (nerve communication)
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Pineal gland
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sleep
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Pituitary gland
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1st hormones to body organs
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Pancreas
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Insulin and glucagon
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Thyroid gland
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Parafollicular cells, high blood calcium, storage of calcium in bone
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Parathyroid gland
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low blood calcium, parathyroid hormone (pth), release calcium into blood from bone
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Adrenal glands
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stress response, blood pressure response, blood osmolarity, sex hormones
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Thyroid gland
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follicular cells, release thyroid hormone (t3 and t4) to increase metabolism and body temperature
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Mammary gland
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secretion of milk for offspring
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Testes
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make and release testosterone
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Ovaries
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make and release estrogen and progesterone
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Melanocytes
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makes melanin, protection from UV rays
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Ductus deferens
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orgasm response, semen
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Uterine and vaginal muscles
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orgasm response, childbirth
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Liver
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blood sugar regulation and storage, growth hormone signaling to muscle and bone
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Bone
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growth hormone cycle
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Muscle
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growth hormone cycle, glucose storage
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Kidneys
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water and blood pressure
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What are characteristics of steroid hormones?
lipid so they enter the cell and go into the nucleus and target DNA to make new proteins
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What are characteristics of a non-steroid hormone?
do not enter cell, interact with surface proteins -> secondary messenger internally in the cell to cause response (signaling cascade)
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Temp/metabolism feedback loop
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Low metabolism - low T3T4, low body temp
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TRH -> TSH -> follicular cells release the follicle containing T3 and T4 -> increase metabolism
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Parafollicular
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High calcium
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Follicular
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Low metabolism (T3 and T4)
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Cortex
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Zona glomerulosa
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stress response - cortisol
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Zona fasciculata
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low blood volume - aldosterone
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Zona reticularis
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DHEA and androstenedione, precursors to sex hormones
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Medulla
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stress response - epinephrine and norepinephrine
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Know the effects of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and how it regulates blood volume and blood pressure in detail
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Know how ACE inhibitors work
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Know how ADH works and how it regulates blood osmolarity and blood pressure
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Type I
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no production of insulin
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Type II
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we may or may not make insulin and body cells no longer respond to insulin - insulin resistance
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Insulin beta cells use glucose so we can't control high glucose levels
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Low levels can cause diabetic coma
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Hyperthyroidism
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High thyroid activity - weight loss, etc., cushing's syndrome, insomnia, hyperactivity
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Hypothyroidsim
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A lack of temp. control, weight gain, hair loss, lethargy, etc.
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Diabetes
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sugar in urine (sweet urine)
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Insipidus
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Kidneys processing too quickly, water goes through too fast, excessive urination, dehydration
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Mellitus
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insulin issues
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What are characteristics of the lymphatic system?
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Vessels, nodes, and accessory organs filled with water like fluid
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What is the purpose of the lymphatic system?
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To return free fluid in the body back to the blood, houses and matures the WBC
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Vessels
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Vessels, trunks, ducts
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Absorption of interstitial fluid and transportation of lymph
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Nodes
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Structures that house and allow for storage of an maturation of lymphocytes
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Monitor lymph fluid for pathogens
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Thymus
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where T cells mature
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Spleen
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Were we send red blood cells to be recycled , storage of WBC
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Lacteals
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in the intestine microvilli fat absorption
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MALT
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nodules to monitor incoming solutes for pathogens, in mucosa
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Right lymphatic duct
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right lymphatic vessels of the right facde, right neck, right arm, right axillary and cervical lymph nodes
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Left lymphatic duct aka thoracic duct
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All remaining lymph vessels and nodes of the upper body and the total lower body. Left cervical, left axillary, l+r iliac, l+r inguinal lymph nodes
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House and mature many white blood cells, we transport WBC from tissues back into circulation, nodes monitor cells and pathogens that travel through
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Stimulus
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Decrease in T3 and T4 concentrations
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Sensor/Integrator
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Chemo and temp receptors, Hypothalamus
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Hormone Released
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Hypothalamus releases TRH
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Target
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Anterior pituitary
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Hormone released
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TSH
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Target
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Thyroid gland (follicular cells)
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Hormone released
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Thyroid gland released T3 and T4
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Effector
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Body tissues
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Response
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Increased metabolic activity
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Result
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Return to homeostatic body temperature, increase in energy
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Stimulus
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Decreased blood Ca2+
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Sensor/Integrator
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Parathyroid glands
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Hormone released
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PTH
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Effectors
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Osteoclasts, kidneys, intestines
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Responses
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Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix which releases calcium into blood, kidney (reabsorb Ca) targets liver which releases Vit. D. Vit D to intestines absorb more calcium
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Result
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Calcium blood return to normal range
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Stimulus
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Decreased blood Ca2+
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Sensor/Integrator
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Parathyroid glands
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Hormone released
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PTH
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Effectors
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Osteoclasts, kidneys, intestines
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Responses
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Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix which releases calcium into blood, kidney (reabsorb Ca) targets liver which releases Vit. D. Vit D to intestines absorb more calcium
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Result
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Calcium blood return to normal range
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Stimulus
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Increased blood Ca2+
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Sensor/Integrator
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Parafollicular cells in thyroid gland
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Hormone released
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Calctionin
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Effectors
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Osteoblasts
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Responses
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Osteoblasts activity increases = put calcium into bone
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Result
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Blood calcium level decreases back to normal
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Stimulus
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Low blood glucose, sleep, or stress
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Sensor/Integrator
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Hypothalamus
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Hormone Released
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GHRH
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Target
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Anterior Pituitary Somatotropes
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Hormone Released
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GH
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Effector
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Liver, bones, muscles, fat cells
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Response
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Increase blood glucose, cell growth and proliferation, bone length, muscle mass, lipolysis. Decrease glucose uptake
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Result
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Return to homeostatic blood glucose levels and growth and repair of the body
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Stimulus
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Increased blood glucose
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Sensor/Integrator
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Pancreatic Beta cells
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Hormone Released
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Insulin
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Effector
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Liver and skeletal muscle
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Response
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Liver and skeletal muscle uptake glucose -> glycogen
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Result
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Decrease In blood glucose and return to homeostasis
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What are general characteristics of blood?
Fluid, proteins, cells
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Transportation
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Gases, nutrients, hormons, WBCs (immune response throughout the body)
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Plasma
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proteins (albumins [most abundant], globulins, fibrinogen), water, solutes (ions, waste, gases, regulation molecules/hormones)
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Formed elements
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cells and others
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Erythrocyte
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transportation of gases
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Leukocytes
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Immune response
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Platelets
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Blood clotting
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Neutrophils
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innate immunity, bacterial infection
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Lymphocytes
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adaptive immunity
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Monocytes
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innate immunity, but will follow b cell orders or antibody flags, macrophage, usually stay in peripheral tissues
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Eosinophils
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innate immunity, parasites
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Basophils
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damage identifying cells, increase inflammation and blood flow to damaged but not bleeding areas
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B cells
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antibody making memory cells, pathogens we have come across before (bacteria, virus, etc.)
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T cells
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memory cells that target the cells or other pathogens that are foreign directly
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NK cells
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cancer killers, destroy abnormal cells
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Biconcave
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increases surface area to increase diffusion fro transportation
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How does sickle cell anemia affect the shape?
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changes the surface area of the cell, changes the Hb folding, holding/transporting less material, the hook shape can get stuck together more easily causing clots
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About 44% of blood
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4-7million/mm3 in an adult
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Live for about 120 days
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Anucleate at maturity
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Lungs
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pH - high pH -> inc. O2 affinity and binding
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Temp - cold -> inc. O2 affinity and binding
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Partial Pressure - lots of O2 -> inc. O2 affinity and binding
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Body tissues
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pH - low pH -> dec. O2 affinity and binding allow CO2 binding
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Temp - lots of metabolism inc. heat -> dec. O2 affinity and binding allow CO2 binding
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Partial Pressure - lots of CO2 -> dec. O2 affinity and bonding
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Alpha chains x2
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Beta chains x2
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Each chain forms around an iron molecule (Fe) (1 Heme = chain + Fe)
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4 heme = hemoglobin
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1 heme carries 1 O2
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1 hemoglobin - carries 4 O2
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Making of blood cells - differentiation of stem cells
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Myeloid stem cells (makes RBC, platelets, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes). Lymphoid stem cells (lymphocytes)
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Red bone marrow
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in spongy bone
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Stimulus
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Decreased O2 to tissues
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Sensor/intefrator
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Kidney
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Signal released
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Erythropoietin
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Effector
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Spongy bone - red bone marrow
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Response
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Make RBC
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Result
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Inc. delivery of O2 to tissues back to homeostasis
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% of formed elements specifically RBC
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Estimate of oxygen carrying capacity
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Low RBC
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Tired/lethargy, dizziness/light headedness, increased heart rate, headaches, shortness of breath, pale skin
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Extra RBC but not too high
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Blood doping, inc. O2 carrying capacity, decreases fatigue, inc. performance
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High RBC (low plasma - dehydration)
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Fatigue, shortness of breath, insomnia, itchy skin
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Break down old RBC with the spleen and liver, dispose of bilirubin as bile, reuse iron to make new RBC
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Anemia
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low O2 to tissues
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Hemorrhagic anemia
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caused by blood loss
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Hemolytic anemia
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excessive RBC destruction with low hematopoiesis
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Aplastic anemia
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bone marrow is not functioning enough (during and after chemo)
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Iron deficient
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not enough iron to make hemoglobin
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Sickle Cell anemia
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inherited Hb mutation
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Polycythemia
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high RBC - blood is too viscous/thick dec. O2 delivery to tissues, lead to clots
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Vascular spasms
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let a ton of blood in the area to provide platelets
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Platelet plug
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platelets start to stick together and adhere to endothelium and CT
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Coagulation
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1. Prothrombin activator released by damage
2.PA converts prothrombin into thrombin 3. Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin (insoluble - not dissolvable) |
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Thrombus
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Clot forming where it does not belong, usually in an artery with cholesterol crystal deposits
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Embolus
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Thrombus dislodging from the clot, can block a vessel somewhere else in the body, I.e. pulmonary embolus
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Lack of platelet production = no clot = thrombocytopenia
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Hemophilia - genetic disorder that stops/lacks conversion of clotting factors
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Agglutination with the wrong type blood - destroy blood, death
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Mother is Rh- and has been exposed to positive blood/antigen, has made antibodies against Rh+, will attack fetus
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