AP Psychology cheat sheet for chapters 1-5
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Albert Bandura
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Added a cognitive slant to behaviorism by researching violence and aggression
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B.F. Skinner
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Believed that internal mental events could only be studied scientifically or not at all; Skinner box
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Carl Rogers
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Developed person-centered therapy
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Charles Darwin
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Theory of natural selection and said desirable traits are passed on
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David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
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Identified specialized types of cells and that individual cells are more sensitive to complex stimuli
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Ernest Hilgard
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Hypnosis causes dissociation in consciousness
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Gustav Fechner
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Published research on the absolute threshold of humans
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Herman von Helmholtz
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Created place theory
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J. Allan Hobson
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Said dreams are side effects of neural activation
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John Watson
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Founder of behaviorism
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Leta Stetter Hollingworth
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Focused on children with high IQs
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Linda Bastoshuk
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Leading authority in taste research
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Margaret Washburn
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Second female president of APA and wrote "The Animal Mind" which helped behaviorism emerge
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Mary Calkins
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First female president of APA and founded 1/12 psychology labs in the U.S.
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Max Wertheimer
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Discovered phi phenomenon
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Neal Miller
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Conducted studies to show that animals could be used for testing
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Robert Rosenthal
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Said experimental bias could lead to influence on subject's behavior
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Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
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Studied split-brain to see what makes the hemispheres unique
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Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall
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Gate-control theory
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Rosalind Cartwright
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We tend to dream about problems in our lives
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Sigmund Freud
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Founder of psychoanalysis and coined the term unconscious; Said we dream to fulfill tasks
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Stanley Hall
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Created APA and first psychological research lab at Johns Hopkins
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Wilhelm Wundt
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German professor who created a campaign promoting psychology to become its own field of study
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William James
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Founder of functionalism; said we have a stream of consciousness in which ideas flow
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Chromosome
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Strands of DNA that carry genetic information
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Dominant gene
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Gene expressed in a heterozygous condition
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Genes
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DNA segments that serve as key functional units in genetic transfer
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Genetic Mapping
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Determines location and sequence of specific genes
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Genotype
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One's genetic makeup
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Fraternal Twins
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Two eggs fertilized by different sperm cells
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Heterozygous
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One dominant and one recessive allele
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Homozygous
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Both alleles are either dominant or recessive
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Identical Twins
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Results from a zygote splitting
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Natural Selection
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Favorable genes will be passed through generations
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Phenotype
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Expression of one's genotype
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Polygenic Traits
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Characteristic influenced by more than one gene
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Recessive Gene
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Gene not expressed in a heterozygous condition
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Zygote
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Single cell formed by union of sperm and egg
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Electrical Stimulation
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Sends weak electrical currents into brain structure to activate it
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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Monitors electrical activity in brain over time with electrodes attached to scalp
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Electromyograph
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Records muscular activity
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Electrooculograph
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Records eye movement
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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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Enhances or depresses parts of the brain
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Brain Plasticity
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Brain is more plastic than assumed
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Broca's Area
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Controls the production of speech
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Cerebral Cortex
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Folded outer layer of cerebrum
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Cerebral Hemispheres
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Left and right halves of cerebrum
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Corpus Callosum
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Connects both cerebral hemispheres
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Forebrain
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emotional and complex thought; Largest and most complex part of brain
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Frontal Lobe
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Largest human lobe; controls muscle movement
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Hindbrain
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vital functions; Includes cerebellum, medulla, and pons
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Left Hemisphere
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Verbal processing, language, speech, reading, writing, sequential
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Midbrain
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sensory functions; Part of brain stem between hindbrain and forebrain
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Occipital Lobe
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Location of visual processing
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Parietal Lobe
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Registers sense of touch, phantom limb
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Right Hemisphere
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Nonverbal processing, spatial, musical, visual recognition, parallel
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Temporal Lobe
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Controls auditory processing along with speech and language comprehension
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Wernicke's Area
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Controls the comprehension of a language
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Amplitude
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Loudness
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Basilar Membrane
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Runs through center of cochlea and has auditory receptors
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Cochlea
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Coiled tunnel filled with fluid that has hearing receptors
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External ear (pinna)
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Collects sound
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Ossicles
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Hammer, anvil, stirrup (tinniest bones in body)
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Purity
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Timbre
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Semicircular Canals
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Passage inside ear that maintains equilibrium
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Wavelength
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Pitch
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Psychologist
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Dedicated to investigating human behavior in a scientific way
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Clinical Psychologist
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Studies and deals with mentally ill patients
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Psychiatrist
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Diagnoses and treats psychological disorders
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Counseling Psychologist
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Deals with people's every day problems of modern severity
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Double-blind
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Experimenters nor subjects know the hypothesis
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Case Study
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In-depth investigation on an individual or topic
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Experiment
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Manipulating a variable under controlled conditions and. observing changes in a second variable
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Naturalistic Observation
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Conducted be observing others in their natural environment
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Quasi-Experiment
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Individuals chosen for a study have an equal chance of being in the control or experimental group
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Anonymity
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Not collecting a person's name during a study
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Confidentiality
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Not releasing any specific response sources
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Debriefing
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Subjects are told the truth of an experiment after being lied to
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Informed Consent
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Allowing participants to choose whether or not they want to be in the study after being told about it
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Random Assignment
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Assigning individuals from the sample into the experimental or control group without bias
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Random Sample
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Sample of people chosen for an experiment without bias
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Random Selection
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Choosing members of a population with no bias that accurately represents that population
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Correlation
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Relationship between two variables
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Correlation Coefficient
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Degree of relationship between two variables (-1 to 1)
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Frequency Distribution
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Indicates how often an observation or number occurs
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Histogram
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A bar graph
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Mean
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The average of all numbers in a data set
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Median
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The number that lies in the middle of a data set when ordered from least to greatest
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Mode
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The number that appears most often in a set of data
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Normal Curve
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Bell-shaped curve where the average score lies in the middle
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Range
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Largest number- smallest number
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Scatterplot
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Graph of points showing relationship between the x and y axis
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Standard Deviation
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Average distance from the mean in a data set
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Statistical Significance
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Probability that data collected from an experiment are due to chance
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Nerves connecting to heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glandsd
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Central Nervous System
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Brain and spinal cord
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Autonomic nervous system subset that conserves resources (rest and digest)
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Peripheral Nervous System
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Nerves that lie outside CNS
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Somatic Nervous System
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Nerves that connect voluntary skeletal muscles to sensory receptors
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Autonomic nervous system subset that deals with emergency body resources (fight or flight)
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Adrenal
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Salt and carbs metabolism
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Gonads
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Sex hormones
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Pancreas
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Sugar metabolism (insulin)
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Pituitary
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Master gland; secretes growth hormones
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Thyroid
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Metabolic rate
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Cones
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Visual receptors that help in daylight and seeing colors
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Blind Spot
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Hole in retina where nerve fibers exit; image that falls on it isn't visible
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Feature Detectors
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Neurons that respond to very specific features of more complex stimuli
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Fovea
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Tiny spots in center of retina where visual acuity is at its greatest; only has cones
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Lens
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Transparent eye structure that focuses light rays falling on retine
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Optic Chiasm
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Where optic nerves cross
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Optic Disk
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Hole in retina where optic nerves exit eye
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Optic Nerve
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Axons that connect eye to brain
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Photoreceptor
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Rods and cones
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Pupil
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Opening in iris that allows light to pass to back of eyes
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Retina
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Neural tissue at back of eye that absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to brain
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Rods
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Visual receptors that help with night vision, peripheral vision, and black and white images
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1
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Lightest stage; theta waves; 4-7 waves on screen; 1-7 minutes
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2
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Slow waves; all waves; spikes on screen; slower heart rate; 10-25 minutes
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3&4
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Deep and slow waves; delta waves; slow/long waves; longest NREM stage
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REM
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Waves similar to awake ones; beta waves; dreaming; rapid eye movement; fast breathing; no control
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Behavioral
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Study of observable reactions
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Biological
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Behavior controlled by physiological aspects
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Cognitive
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The way that the world is viewed determines one's behavior
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Cross-cultural
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Focuses on filling the data gap between white males and minorities
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Eclectic
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Treatment approach varies on the client's problem
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Evolutionary
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Views behaviors as human adaption
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Functionalism
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Focuses on purpose of consciousness
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Humanistic
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Emphasizes human qualities and potential
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Psychoanalytic
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Addresses internal motivations and unsconcious thoughts that affect one's behavior
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Structualism
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Analyzes consciousness in elements and their relationship
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Confounding Variable
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Two independent variables in an experiment
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Control Group
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Group that does not receive special treatment
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Dependent Variable
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Variable affected when the independent variable is altered
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Experimental Group
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Group that receives special treatment
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Extraneous Variable
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Outside variable that influences the dependent variable
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Hypothesis
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Prediction of what the data will prove at the end of an experiment
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Independent Variable
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Event or condition manipulated in order to evoke change in the dependent variable
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Operational Definition
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Specific definition of the measures of the variables in an experiment
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Subject/Participant
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People or animals observed in a study
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Action Potential
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Shift in neuron's electrical charge that travels along axon
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Afferent Nerve Fibers
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Carry information inwards to CNS
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Axon
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Long fiber that transmits signals way from soma to other cells
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Dendrites
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Receives information
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Efferent Nerve Fibers
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Carry information outwards from CNS
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Glia
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Provide support for neurons
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Mylein Sheath
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Insulates axons to speed up signal transmissions
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Resting Potential
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Neuron is stable, negatively charged, and inactive
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Reuptake
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Neurotransmitters sponged from synaptic cleft by presynaptic membrane
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Soma
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Cell body which contains the nucleus and main cell parts
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Synapse/ Synaptic Cleft
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Gap between terminal button of a neuron and cell membrane of another
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Terminal Buttons
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Secretes chemicals
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Alcohol
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Beverages containing ethyl alcohol (ex. vodka, rum, beer, whiskey)
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Cannabis
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Plant that makes weed, THC, and hashish
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MDMA
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Related to amphetamines, hallucinogens, and mescaline (ex. adulterants, ecstasy, caffeine, heroine)
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Narcotics
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Opiates; relieve pain (Ex. opium, heroin, codeine, oxycodone)
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Opiates
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Narcotics; relieve pain (ex. same as narcotics)
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Psychoactive Drugs
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Modify mental, emotional, and behavioral functions
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Sedatives
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Sleep-inducting drugs that decrease CNS function and behaviors (ex. sleeping pills)
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Stimulants
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Increase CNS activation and behaviors (Ex. Cocaine, meth, adderal)
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Absolute Threshold
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Minimum stimulus that can be detected
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Additive Color Mixing
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More light in a mix than exists in any one light
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Afterimage
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Visual image that persists after stimulus is removed
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Binocular Depth Cues
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Clues about distance based on differing views of two eyes
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Convergence
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Eyes go inward when looking at a close-up object
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Dark Adaptation
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Eyes become sensitive to light with little light present
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Feature Analysis
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Detecting specifics in a visual input and putting them in a more complex form
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Habituation
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Tendency to have a decreased response to something
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Impossible Figures
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Objects that can be represented in 2D but not 3D
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Inattentional Bias
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Failure to see visible things because attention is focused
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Just Noticeable Difference
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Smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected
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Light Adaptation
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Eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination
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Monocular Depth Cues
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Ability to judge distance with one eye
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Motion Parallex
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Closer things more quicker than further items
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Parallel Processing
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Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously
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Perceptual Constancy
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Tendency to experience a stable perception when something is changing
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Perceptual Set
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Readiness to perceive a certain stimuli in a particular way
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Phi Phenomenon
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Moving illusion done by presenting visual stimuli in rapid order
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Retina Disparity
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Objects within 25ft look slightly different if one eye is covered
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Reversible Figure
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Drawing that can go back and forth with interpretations
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Sensory Adaptation
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Gradual decline in sensitivity because of prolonged stimulation
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Subliminal Perception
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Registration of sensory input without being aware
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Subtractive Color Mixing
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Removing wavelengths to make a color darker
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Insomnia
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Chronic problems getting adequate sleep
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Latent Content
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Hidden meaning of a dream
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Lucid Dreams
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People thinking clearly while in a dream and walking through life
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Manifest Content
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Plot of a dream, the literal plot
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Night Terrors
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Abrupt awakenings from NREM with panic
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Nightmares
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Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to people waking up from REM
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REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
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Acting out while one is asleep
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Sleep Apnea
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Reflexive gasps for air that wake people up
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Somnambulism
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Sleepwalking
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Cheatography n. The art of mapping complex subjects into clear, instantly navigable reference guides.
