Cheatsheet for chapter 6-10 of AP Psychology I accidentally put a block twice, sorry :(
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Albert Bandura
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Investigated observational learning
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Alfred Binet
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Pioneered formula for mental age, later used in calculating IQ
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B.F. Skinner
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Named "operant condition" and showed that responses are repeated if consequences are favorable; said environment governed language development
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Charles Spearman
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Creator of general intelligence factor
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David Buss
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Found women like status and ambition while men like physical aspects
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David Wechsler
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Made IQ test for adults
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Elizabeth Loftus
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Researched memory and how misinformation effect creates doubt in eye-witness testimonies
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Ellen Winner
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Profoundly gifted kids suffer more from emotional/social problems than moderately gifted kids
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E.L. Thorndike
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One of the first to research operant conditioning with a cat in a puzzle box
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Francis Galton
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Interested in link between intelligence and heredity
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Herman Ebbinghaus
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First to study memory and used nonsense syllables on himself
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George Miller
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Short term memory; said we can hold 7+/-2 items in short term memory at a time
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Howard Gardner
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Theory of multiple intelligences
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Ivan Pavlov
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Russian physiologist who conducted the experiment with the salivation of dogs; found classical conditioning
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John B. Watson
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Founder of behaviorism and conducted early study of generalization
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John Garcia
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Conducted studies on taste aversion
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Lewis Terman
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Revised Binet's IQ test and made norms for American children
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Noam Chomsky
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Kids learn syntax and rules of language rather than memorize specific verbal responses
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Robert Sternberg
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Created successful intelligence theory
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Stanley Schnaster
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Created two factor theory of emotion
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Sue Savage Rumbaugh
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Taught Kanzi how to speak with pictures and proved animals could understand language
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Walter Cannon
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Said thalamus sends signal to cortex and autonomic system simultaneously
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William James
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Said emotion results from perception of autonomic arousal
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William Masters and Virginia Johnson
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Studied the sexual response cycle through observation and experiment
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Chunk
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Group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit
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Cocktail Party Phenomenon
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Focusing on one aspect of something and forgetting about the rest
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Elaboration
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Linking stimulus to other information while encoding
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Encoding
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Forming a memory code
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Flashbulb Memories
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Vivid and detailed memories of big events (ex. 9/11)
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Long-Term Memory
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Infinite capacity and can store information for long periods of time
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Rehearsal
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Repeating information aloud or thinking about it constantly to move to long term memory
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Retrieval
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Recover information from storage
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Self-Referent Encoding
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Deciding if and how information is relevant and worthy of keeping in memory
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Sensory Memory
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Information kept in its original sensory form for 1/4 of a second
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Storage
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Maintaining encoded information in memory over time
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Short-Term Memory
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Limited capacity (5-9 items) and can store unrehearsed information for 10-20 seconds
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Conceptual Memory
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Classification system with many levels based on common properties
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Connectionist Model/ Parallel Distributed Processes
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Cognitive processes rely on neurons that resemble computational networks
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Declarative Memory
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Handles factual information
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Echoic Memory
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Perfect brief (3-4 seconds) memory for sound
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Episodic Memory
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Chronological recollections of personal experiences
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Explicit Memory
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First thing we think of, normally memories or facts
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Iconic Memory
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A split-second perfect photograph of a scene
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Implicit Memory
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Unintentional memories
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Nondeclarative Memory
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Handles memories for actions, skills, and emotional responses
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Schemas
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Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular topic
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Semantic Memory
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General knowledge not tied to time
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Semantic Network
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Nodes (concepts) joined by linking paths
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Anterograde Amnesia
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Loss of memory after onset of amnesia
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Decay Theory
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Things are forgotten because memory fades over time
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Forgetting Curve
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Graph showing forgetfulness and retention
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Hindsight Bias
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Shaping one's interpretation of the past to fit how events turned out
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Interference Theory
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People forget information because of competition for other material
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Misinformation Effect
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Recollection of event altered by misleading post-event information
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Proactive Intereference
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Previously learned information interferes with retention of new information
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Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
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Temporarily not being able to remember something; feeling as if information is just out of reach
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Repression
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Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings in the unconcious
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Retroactive Interference
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New information impairs retention of previously learned information
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Retrograde Amnesia
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Loss of memory before onset of amnesia
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Serial Position Effect
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Tendency to forget the middle things of a list
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Source Amnesia
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Not being able to remember the source of information and thinking you just knew it
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Source Monitoring Effect
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Memory from one source is mistaken for coming from another source
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Classical Conditioning
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Stimulus can evoke a response that was evoked by another stimulus
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Conditioned Response
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Learned reaction to conditioned stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus
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Previously neutral stimulus that provokes new reaction
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Higher-Order Conditioning
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Conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus
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Instinctive Drift
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Animal instincts interfere with conditioning process
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Pavlonian Conditioning
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Another name for classical conditioning used as a tribute to Pavlov
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Stimulus Discrimination
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Only providing a response to one specific stimuli
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Stimulus Generalization
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Reacting to two similar stimuli in the same way
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Unconditioned Response
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Natural reaction to a stimulus
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Unconditioned Stimulus
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Provokes a natural response
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Bobo Doll Experiment
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Kids shown aggressive adults to see if they were aggressive (they were)
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Conditioned Reinforcers
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Have reinforcing qualities similar to primary reinforcers
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Escape Learning
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Response developed to end undesirable event
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Law of Effect
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Positive behavioral consequences lead to behaviors being repeated while punishments cause the extinction of that behavior
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Negative Reinforcement
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Removing something undesirable in order for an event to be repeated
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Operant Conditioning
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Conditioning that involves consequences
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Positive Reinforcement
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Adding something desirable in order to an event to be repeated
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Primary Reinforcers
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Reinforcements needed to live (ex. food)
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Punishment
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Adding/removing something so that an action is not repeated
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Reinforcement
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Events following response that increase likelihood of that response being repeated
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Secondary Reinforcers
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Reinforcers based on one's wants (ex. phone)
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Shaping
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Using reinforcements and punishments to get a certain behavior
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Skinner Box
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Rats were shocked slightly until they pushed a lever to receive food
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Continuous Reinforcement
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Everything in a response is reinforced
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Fixed-Interval Schedule
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Reinforcer given after a period of time
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Fixed-Ratio Schedule
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Reinforcer given after set number of unreinforced responses
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Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement
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Only reinforcing designated response sometimes
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Variable-Interval Schedule
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Reinforcer given a random time period after first response
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Variable-Ratio Schedule
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Reinforcer given after random number of non-reinforced responses
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Crystallized Intelligence
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Ability to apply acquired skills and knowledge to problems
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Emotional Intelligence
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Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
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Fluid Intelligence
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Ability to reason, memory capacity, and speed of information processing
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Intellectual Disability
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Subnormal mental ability and deficiencies in every day things before the age of 18
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Practical Intelligence
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Sees all aspects of a problem; good decisions; poses problems in an optimal way
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Social Intelligence
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Accepts others for what they are; thinks before speaking; sensitive to other people's needs and desires
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Verbal Intelligence
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Verbally fluent; speaks clearly; knowledgeable in a certain field; reads with high comprehension
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Bisexual
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Seek emotional sexual relationships with members of either sex
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Estrogen
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Primary female hormone
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Heterosexual
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Seek emotional sexual relationships with the opposite sex
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Homosexual
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Seek emotional sexual relationships with the same sex
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Refractory Period
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Time after orgasm in which males are unresponsive to further stimulation
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Sexual Disorder
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A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or function
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Sexual Orientation
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A person's preference or emotional and sexual relationships in their sex
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Sexual Response Cycle
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Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
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Testosterone
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Primary male hormone
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Vasocongestion
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Engorgement of blood vessels to produce an erection
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Language
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Symbols that convey meaning with rules on how to put them together to mean an infinite number of things
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Morphemes
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Smallest unit of speech; 100 possible but 40 in English
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Phonemes
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Smallest distinguishable unit of speech; 50,000 in English (root words, prefixes, suffixes)
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Semantics
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Concerned with meaning of words and their combinations; deepest way to encode
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Syntax
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System of rules in a language (grammar rules)
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Fast Mapping
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When young kids remember a word by only seeing it once
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Language Acquisition Device
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Innate process that helps one learn a language
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Overextension
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Child uses a word for a wider set of objects or actions than intended (calls every circular thing a ball)
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Overregularization
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Incorrect application of grammatical rules (feets instead of feet)
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Telegraphic Speech
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Consists or two word phrases (Give food)
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Underextension
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Child uses a word for a smaller range of objects than intended (only calls their dog a dog)
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Algorithm
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Step-by-step procedure for trying all alternatives searching for a solution
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Decision Making
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Evaluating alternatives and making decisions
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Framing
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The way in which questions are worded
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Functional Fixedness
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Seeing an item as its most common use
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Heuristic
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Guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions (going right is always right)
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Incubation
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New solutions arising after taking a break from solving
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Insight
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Suddenly discovering correct solution to a problem after struggling for a while
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Mental Set
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Using something again because its worked before
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Problem Solving
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Efforts made to discover what must be done to achieve a goal
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Problem Space
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Set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver
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Risky Decision Making
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Making uncertain choices
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Semantic Slanting
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Choosing words to elicit an emotional response and gain a certain reaction or solution
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Theory of Bounded Rationality
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Using simple decision making strategies which often result in irrational decisions (choosing C on a test when you're lost)
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Availability Heuristic
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Basing estimates on what one has seen
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Belief Bias
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Illogical conclusions to confirm previous beliefs
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Belief Perseverance
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Maintain a belief even after evidence contradicts it
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Conjunction Fallacy
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Estimating that odds of two events happening together are greater than them happening by themselves
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Gambler's Fallacy Heuristic
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Believing probability of something happening will increase if it hasn't happened in a whille
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Basing estimates on how similar it is to a prototype
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Achievement Test
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Asses a person's mastery and knowledge on a topic
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Aptitude Tests
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Tests specific types of mental abilities
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Intelligence Tests
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Measures general mental ability
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Personality Tests
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Measures various aspects of one's personality
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Psychological Test
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Standard measure of a sample of a person's behavior
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Construct Validity
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How well evidence lines up a hypothetical costruct
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Content Validity
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Degree to which test content represents domain its supposed to cover
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Correlation Coefficient
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Degree of relationship of two variables
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Criterion Relate Validity
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Comparing two assessments that should represent the same information
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Percentile Score
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Percent of people who score at or below a certain score
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Reliability
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How consistent the scores of a test are
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Standardization
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Uniform procedures used when administering and scoring tests
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Test Norms
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Information about where a score on a psychological test ranks compared to others
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Validity
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Ability of a test to measure what it's supposed to measure
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Construct Validity
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How well evidence lines up a hypothetical costruct
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Content Validity
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Degree to which test content represents domain its supposed to cover
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Correlation Coefficient
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Degree of relationship of two variables
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Criterion Relate Validity
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Comparing two assessments that should represent the same information
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Percentile Score
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Percent of people who score at or below a certain score
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Reliability
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How consistent the scores of a test are
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Standardization
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Uniform procedures used when administering and scoring tests
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Test Norms
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Information about where a score on a psychological test ranks compared to others
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Validity
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Ability of a test to measure what it's supposed to measure
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Cheatography n. The art of mapping complex subjects into clear, instantly navigable reference guides.
