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Energy is something you need to do work
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred or transformed but neither created nor destroyed
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2nd Law of Thermodynamic
Each energy transfer or transformation increases the disorder
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What is ATP?
Adenosine Triphosphate
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What kind of molecule is ATP?
ATP is an energy storing molecule
Called the Cell's Energy Currency Cells get energy from ATP |
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What is ATP made of ?
ATP is made out of adenine (nitogen base), ribose (sugar), and phosphate groups
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What happens when the bond breaks to the ATP?
ATP loses 1 phosphate group
When it loses a phosphate group it turns into adenosine "Di" phosphate |
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1st- Glycolosis
-> Location: Cytoplasm
Splitting sugars in cytoplasm energy investment phase -> 2 ATP molecules combine with glucose molecule |
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2nd- Oxidation
-> Location:Inner membrane and inner membrane space of the mitochondria
Pyruvates move into the mitochondria through oxidation. pyruvates brolen into water |
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3rd- Krebs Cycle
-> Location:Matrix For every glucose, the cycle repeats 2x. The breakdown of pyruvic molecules --> carbon dioxide releases 2 ATPs in this stage
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4th -Electron Transport Chain
-> Location: Inner membrane
Membrane bound carriers that transport electrons, produces 32 ATP's |
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Photosynthesis
Chloroplast
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Cellular Respiration
Mitochondria
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ATP
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ADP
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Adenosine Triphosphate
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Adenosine Diphosphate
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ATP is a nucleotide found in cells
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ADP is a nucleotide which has a low amount of energy
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Made of 1 adenine, 1 ribose, and 3 phosphates
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Made out of 1 adenine, 1 ribose, and 2 phosphates
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ADP is formed when ATP LOSES a phosphate
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is an Anabolic Pathway because light energy from the sun is converted into glucose
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Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration is Catabolic Pathway because organic molecules are broken down to release energy
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Oxidation
A reaction that REMOVES 1 or more electrons from a substance
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Reduction
A reaction where electrons are GAINED by either removing oxygen, adding hydrogen, or the addition of electrons
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Oxidized
When a molecule has LOST Electrons and that has increase its oxidation #
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Reduced
When a molecule has GAINED electrons by losing an oxygen or gaining a hydrogen atom
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Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
Any chemical change where 1 molecule LOSES electrons and the other molecule GAINS electrons
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Redox Reaction
Any chemical change where 1 molecule becomes OXIDIZED loses electrons and the other molecule is REDUCED gains electrons
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Oxidizing Agent
The molecule that GAINS electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction and is reduced
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Reducing Agent
The molecule that has a potential to reduce another molecule
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Anode
Where Oxidation takes place
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Cathode
Where Reduction takes place
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46 or 23 pairs
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1st: Interphase
This is the 1st stage of the cell cycle and occurs before mitosis.
During this phase the cell GROWS makes a copy of it DNA (the chromosomes are copied) and prepares to divide into 2 cells The 2 structures that are being copied are cylinder shape and are called centrioles |
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2nd:Prophase
This is the 1st phase of Mitosis
During this phase the centrioles start to move to the opposite ends of the cell The spindle fibers start to form a bridge to connect the cells |
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3rd:Metaphase
This is the 2nd phase of Mitosis
During this phase, the chromosomes all line up down the middle of the cell (The nucleus has now disappeared) |
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4th: Anaphase
This is the 3rd phase of Mitosis
During this phase the chromosomes pull apart from each other and move to the opposite sides of the cell Thos process is caused by the split of the centromere of each chromosomes. These chromosomes have been pulled by spindle fibers, which has subsequently caused the cekk to stretch out |
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5th: Telophase
This is the 4th and Final Stage of Mitosis
During this phase new nuclear membranes form a new nuclear envelope has also formed and the spindle fibers have disappeared. There are now 2 new nuclei |
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6th: Cytokinesis
This is the Final Stage of the Cell Cycle
(This phase occurs with Telophase) This phase results in the cell spliting into 2 identical daughter cells. The 2 daughter cells both contain the same chromosome set and about half the organelles of the parents There are differences in this phase of the animal cell & plant cells Animal cells: The cell membranes squeezes together around the middle of the cell. The cytoplasm pinched into 2 cells. each daughter cell recieves about half the organelles of the parent cell Plant Cells: A plant cell's rigid cell wall cannot squeeze together in the same way a cell membrane can |
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Potential Energy
Energy an object has due to its position or structure
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Kinetic Energy
Energy an object has due to its motion
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Metabolism
All the chemical reactions in a cell
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Catabolism
All the reactionns that break LARGE molecules into SMALLER ones
Energy is Transferred from food to a stored cellular form (downhill reactions)) |
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Anabolism
All the reactions that build LARGE molecules from SMALLER ones
Energy is Required to build the molecule (uphill reactions) |
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Competitive Inhibition
The inhibitor copies the substrate and competes for the activation site of the enzyme
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Non-Competitive Inhibition
The inhibitor binds to another area on the enzyme, alters the shaoe of the enzyme and prevents the active site from functioning
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Regulation:
-> The regulation of an enzyme may help to regulate metabolism
-> Turns off the genes that regulate enzyme activity Regulate the enzyme activity once it is made |
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Allosteric Regulation
-> mimics non-competitive inhibition
-> Enzyme function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule at another site. |
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2 Possible ways of Allosteric Inhibitor
1) Inhibitor binds to the allosteric site, blocks the active site and changes the shape of the entire enzyme
2) Inhibitor bind to the allosteric site and changes the shape of the active site |
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What is the reaction (starting materials and products) for Cellular Respiration?
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Glycolysis
Reactants
Glucose
2 ATP molecules 2 NAD+ |
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Glycolysis
Products
2 Pyruvic Acid
2 ATP 2 NADH |
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Citric Acid / Krebs Cycle
Reactants
2 Pyruvic Acid (produced by Glycolysis)
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Citric Acid / Krebs Cycle
Products
2 ATP
4 CO2 NADH and FADH2 |
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Electron Transport Chain
Reactants
Oxygen and Energy Carriers
(produced by Glycolysis and the Citric Cycle) |
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Electron Transport Chain
Products
32 ATP
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Light-Dependent Reactions
Reactants
Light
Water |
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Light-Dependent Reactions
Products
ATP
NADPH Oxygen |
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Calvin Cycle
Reactants
6 CO2
6 ATP 6 NADPH |
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Calvin Cycle
Products
Glucose
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Photosynthesis
ATP is made in light-dependent reactions through ATP synthase, chemiosmosis
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Cellular Respiration
ATP is made in chemiosmoisis
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Balanced Chemical Photosynthesis
6 H2O + 6CO2 -- Sunlight-- C6 H12 O6 +6 O2
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Balanced Chemical Cellular Respiration
6 O2+ C6 H12 O6--Sunlight-- 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP Energy
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Heredity
The passing of traits from parents to offspring
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Gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes a specific trait
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Allele
The different forms/variations of a gene
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Fertilization
The process where the egg and sperm cell join to form an offspring
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Chromosome
DNA condensed into a transportable form after it has replicated; since DNA is replicated, each chromosome contains 2 identical copies
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Chromatin
Uncoiled strand of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones
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Sister Chromatid
Identical copies of DNA attached to each other by the centromere
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Homologous Chromosomes
A pair of chromosomes where 2 chromosomes are the same sixe and shape and they contain the same genes with each parent contributing 1 chromosome in each pair
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Centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
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Mitosis
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1) Crossing Over
2) Pairing of Homologues 3) Number of Divisions 4) Number of Haploid Daughter Cells 5)Chromosome Number |
1 Stays the same |
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Meiosis
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1) Crossing Over
2) Pairing of Homologues 3) Number of Divisions 4) Number of Haploid Daughter Cells 5)Chromosome Number |
2 4 1/2 |
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Interphase
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis |
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Free Energy
the amount of the systems energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout
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Exergonic Reactions
A Release of free energy and is Spontaneous
G is negative |
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Endergonic Reaction
Absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is Non-spontaneous
G is positive |
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Properties of an Enzyme:
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Recyclable
Are able to maintain their structures Specific to a substrate Lower Activation Energy |
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What type of macromolecules are enzymes?
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Enzymes are protein macromolecules that act as catalysts
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Electron Transport Chain
-> 1st part of stage 3
-> Location: inner membrane NADH and FADH2 are moved across the ETC to oxygen, the final electron acceptor. Proteins in ETC use energy from released electrons to shuttle H+ against the concentration gradient into the inner membrane space |
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Chemosmosis
-> Location: Inner membrane space, Inner membrane, Matrix
-> Energy from H+ concentration in inner membrane space drives H+ through ATP synthase, which activates catalytic sites that attach a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP |
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Photosynthesis
To make food (Glucose) for a Plant Cell
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Cellular Respiration
To release usable energy to power a cell
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Reactants for Photosynthesis
Light Energy
Carbon Dioxide (C02) Water (H20) |
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Products for Photosynthesis
Glucose (C6 H12 O6)
Oxygen (O2) |
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Reactants for Cellular Respirations
Gluclose (C6 H12 O6)
Oxygen (O2) |
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Products for Photosynthesis
Usable Chemical Energy
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Water (H2O) |
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Substrate-level Phosphorylation
In this process a phosphate group from a substrate molecule directly to ADP, forming ATP
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
Final Stage in cellular respiration which the energy stored in electron carrier molecules is used to generate ATP
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Aerobic because it require oxygen
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Aerobic Conditions
Pyruvate -> acetyl-coA -> Citric Acid Cycle
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Anarobic Conditions
Eukaryotic Cell
Pyruvate -> Lactate/Lactic Acid
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Anarobic Conditions
Prokaryotic Cell
Pyruvate -> Acetaldehyde -> Ethanol
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Photosystems:
An organized complex of chlorophyll,other pigments and proteins that rap light energy as exicted electrons
Plants have 2 linked photosystems in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts Photosystem II passes an excited electron transport chain to Photosystem I to replace an exicted electron passed to NADPH. The electron lost from Photosystem II is replaced by the oxidation of water. |
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How are Photosynthesis + Cellular Respiration related?
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Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere and Cellular Respiration puts it back. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere and Cellular Respiration uses that oxygen to release energy from food.
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Mitosis
A process of Asexual Reproduction where the cell divides into 2 producing a replica with identical number of chromosomes in a haploid cell
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Meiosis
A type of cellular respiration where the number of chromosomes are reduced by half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell
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Function of Mitosis
Asexual Reproduction
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Function of Meiosis
Sexual Reproduction
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Mitosis occurs in:
All Organisms
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Meiosis occurs in:
Humans, Animals, Plants, Fungi
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Mitosis is Genetically
Identical
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Meiosis is Genetically
Different (Genetic Variance)
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Interphase
DNA replicates during interphase. This provides each new daughter cell with a complete nucleus |
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1) Crossing Over & Recombination
2) Independent Segregation of Homologous Chromosomes 3) Random Assortment |
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Spermatogenesis
The process when the seminiferous tubules of the testes produce sperm cells
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When does it occur?
Puberty
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What does spermatogonia do?
They divide continously via mitosis unitl puberty all their daughter cells become spermatogonia
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It remains at the basal lamina to maintain the germ cell line
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Interphase
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II |
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