Research Methods and Development
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experiment
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theory
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Harry Harlow
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rhesus monkeys
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maternal-separation, dependency needs, social isolation, importance of caregiving and companionship to social and cognitive development
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Contact comfort
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Mary Ainsworth
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infant is placed in scenarios with or without its mother as well as with or without a stranger
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development of the attachment theory, observe early emotional attachment between a child and its primary caregiver
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Strange Situation Classification (SSC)
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Jean Piaget
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improvising conversations with children to understand their unique mental worlds
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how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood
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Genetic Epistemology
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Lev Vygotsky
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social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning & is continuous process that is profoundly influenced by culture
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Social Constructivism (sociocultural)
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Tolman
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rat maze, withheld food
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individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, & strive toward goals
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Purposive Behaviorism
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Pavlov
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dogs & bell, drooling
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people will repeat an action without realizing that they have been conditioned to do so
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Classical Conditioning
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Bandura
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Bobo Doll, aggression/immitation
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we learn social behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
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Social Learning
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Skinner
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children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner.
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Operant Conditioning
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limitations/risks
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longitudinal
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examines change within individuals, stability vs change over time. (ex. at 12mo, 18mo, & 24mo)
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costly, attrition, practice effect, cohort effects
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cross-sectional
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changes between groups (ex. average changes between age groups)
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yield information on age-related change, not development per se
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sequential
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(both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons) children of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and account for the possibility of cohort effects
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costly, practice effects
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involuntary or obligatory responses
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because of limited motor control, test involuntary responses
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Ex. habituation vs dishabituation
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Baillargeon and colleagues (1985): Object Permanence & Solidity Principle
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voluntary responses
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behaviors that a person completes by choice
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Ex. recall memory and elicited imitation
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psychophysiological responses
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measure heart rate, hormone levels, brain activity, etc.
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Ex. event-related-potentials (ERPs)
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vernal report paradigms
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children provide written or verbal answers to scenarios
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Prenatal
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(egg + sperm) = zygote = blastula = neural tube
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Neonatal
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Attachment (~8mo), Language (babbling), Cognition (Piaget)
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Childhood
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Cognition
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Object permanence, conservation, abstract reasoning, theory of mind, cultural influence
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Adolescence
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Gender
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Spectrum, cis vs trans, adrenarche (6-12) and menarche
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assent
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minor participants are asked to indicate their willingness to participate in a study
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attrition
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participant drops out, or fails to complete, all parts of a study
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bidirectional relations
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one variable is likely both cause and consequence of another variable
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cohort effects
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research findings differ for participants of the same age tested at different points in historical time
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cross-sectional research
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examines behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time
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dishabituation
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participants demonstrate increased attention (through looking or listening behavior) to a new stimulus after having been habituated to a different stimulus
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elicited imitation
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A behavioral method used to examine recall memory in infant
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event-related potentials (ERP)
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recording of participant brain activity using a stretchy cap
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habituation
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participants demonstrated decrease attention to repeatedly-presented stimuli.
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informed consent
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getting permission from adults
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institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
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reviews and approves research procedures
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involuntary or obligatory responses
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Behavior that does not require much conscious thought
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motor control
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thinking to direct muscles and limbs
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object permanence
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understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be directly observed
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practice effect
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participants get better at a task over time by “practicing” ( can be particularly problematic in longitudinal and sequential research designs)
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recall memory
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remembering discrete episodes or events from the past (including encoding, consolidation and storage, and retrieval)
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solidity principle
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idea that two solid masses should not be able to move through one another
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violation of expectation paradigm
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research method in which infants are expected to respond in a particular way because one of two conditions violates or goes against what they should expect based on their everyday experiences
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symbiosis
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selfishness
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altruism
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mating & natural selection
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innate behavior
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heritability & environment
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what is culture?
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obeying norms, roles, environmental cues, prejudice/sterotypes, conformity, bonding, inferiority
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Milgram
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disposition bias
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personality traits influence behavior
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situation bias
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situation influences behavior
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fundamental attribution
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bias from situation bias
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cognitive dissonance
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belief system contradicts behavior
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familiarity
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positive attitude toward familiar things
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validity effect
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believing something that is repeated
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ethnocentrism
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ne's own group is superior
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cultural relativism
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view that other groups are all equally valid and no one system is really “better”
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invulnerability illusion
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group can do no wrong
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self-censorship
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dissenters stay quiet
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pressure to conform
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teasing and pressuring
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unanimity
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illusion of consensus
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what is culture?
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obeying norms, roles, environmental cues, prejudice/sterotypes, conformity, bonding, inferiority
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Milgram
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