Cross-cultural research, Self Concept, Self esteem, and Self-presentation, Attitude Formation, Social Comparison, Personal and Social identity, Social Cognition-Schemas and Heuristics, Attribution Formation, Bystander Effect, Social Influence- Conformity, Compliance and Obedience, Aggression Causes, Social loafing and social facilitation
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Ways in which individuals are influenced by the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of others
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Types of social influence:
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Conformity
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Adjusting one's thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors to align with those of a group or social norm
may conform due to a desire to fit in, be accepted, or avoid social rejection can be explicit (overtly agreeing/adopting the group's behavior) or implicit (adjusting behavior w/o overt response) Sherif's Research on the Autokinetic Phenomenon:Muzafer Sherif (1937) investigated (1)how norms emerge and (2)their influence on behavior in a social group In this study, participants were individually shown a small dot of light in a dark room and asked to estimate its movement. When participants were later placed in groups and asked to make their estimates together, they gradually converged on a common estimate, demonstrating the emergence of a group norm. Sherif's study highlighted the role of informational social influence, where individuals rely on others' judgments and conform to establish a shared understanding. Autokinetic phenomenon- when placed in a completely dark room and exposed to a single, stationary point of light, most people perceive the light as moving about - in the dark room, there are no clear cues to distance or location, this perceived movement is known as the autokinetic phenomenon Asch's Research on Conformity:focused on understanding conformity in the context of perceptual judgment Participants were shown a line and then asked to match it with one of several comparison lines. There were 9 confederates (individuals working with the researcher) and 1 participant in each case, the confederate deliberately gave incorrect answers. Asch found that participants often conformed to the incorrect majority answer, even when it was clear that the majority was wrong. This experiment demonstrated the power of normative social influence, where individuals conform to fit in and avoid social disapproval. Social Foundations of Conformity: Normative social influence-conformity driven by the desire to gain social approval, be liked, or avoid social rejection - to 'fit in' and maintain +ve rxns, we alter our behavior to meet others’ expectations Informational social influence- conform because they believe that others have accurate information and can provide valuable guidance - based on the desire to possess accurate perceptions of the social world Factors Affecting Conformity: Cohesiveness-degree of attraction and closeness among group members, high levels can increase conformity Conformity and group size- as group size inc, so does conformity. but if the group size is too large, dec in conformity Descriptive norms- reflect what people typically do in a given situation (what most do) Injunctive norms- reflect what is socially approved/disapproved (expected behavior) Normative focus theory- norms will have an influence on behavior only when they are prominent in the minds of the individuals involved at the time of the behavior (norm should be focal/imp thought in their minds) Why we don't conform: Power- people with high power/status conform less Sexual motives- women find non-conforming traits (assertive, desicive etc) attractive on men Desire to be unique- desire to stand out and be distinct- resist conformity |
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Compliance
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adjusting one's behavior in response to a direct request or demand from another person or group
done due to influence of social norms, expectations, or the desire to gain rewards or avoid punishment 6 underlying factors: 1. Friendship/liking- more likely to comply with requests from those they like or have a positive relationship with/admire Ingratiation- seek to gain compliance or favor by using flattery, compliments etc, to create a positive image and establish rapport with the target person self-promotion- showcasing their accomplishments, credentials, or skills to establish credibility and convince others of their competence to increase compliance Incidental similarity- creation of similarity between oneself and others, even when the similarity is unrelated to the request itself, it can influence compliance due to a sense of connection/identification 2. Authority- natural tendency to obey and respect authority figures, leading to increased compliance 3. Social validation-individuals use the behavior or opinions of others as a cue for how they should behave, due to desire to conform to social norms or to gain social acceptance 4. Commitment/consistency- desire for consistency or commitment towards particular belief/behavior/task etc can lead to increased compliance The Foot-in-the-Door- involves making a small initial request and then following it up with a larger request - feel sense of consistency The Lowball-presenting an attractive initial offer, but after the person agrees, additional hidden costs or conditions are revealed - feel sense of commitment 5. Reciprocity- people feel obliged to give back or repay others for what they have received, so they comply. The Door-in-the Face- making an initial large and unreasonable request that is likely to be rejected, followed up with a more reasonable and smaller request That’s-Not-All- making an initial offer or request, but before the person responds, additional incentives or benefits are added to make the deal more attractive 6. Scarcity-When individuals perceive that an opportunity or resource is scarce, they are more motivated to comply with requests to obtain it. Playing Hard to Get- creating the perception of scarcity/high demand by initially showing disinterest or reluctance, increasing the perceived value of the person/object and may motivate others to comply with the request or desire for attention The Fast-Approaching-Deadline Technique- creating a sense of urgency and time pressure, compelling individuals to act quickly and comply to avoid missing out on the opportunity |
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Obedience
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act of following the orders, instructions, or commands of an authority figure
can involve actions that may go against an individual's personal beliefs Zimbardo's Prison Study (Stanford Prison Experiment): Conducted by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1971 investigated the psychological effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment Participants were randomly assigned to play the roles of either prisoners or guards. The study had to be terminated early due to the extreme behavioral changes observed in both groups. The study demonstrated the powerful influence of the social role and the potential for individuals to engage in abusive and dehumanizing behaviors when placed in positions of authority. important conclusion- just because there are social norms and structures in place that create inequality doesn't mean that people automatically accept or agree with those inequalities - it depends on how muchh they identify with those roles (if they dont, they might resist and fight against the system) Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment (1960s):aimed to study individuals' willingness to obey authority figures, even if it meant causing harm to others Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a person (actually an actor) in another room when they answered questions incorrectly. The experiment revealed that a significant proportion of participants were willing to administer potentially lethal shocks when directed by an authority figure, highlighting the power of obedience to authority - pressure to obey in this situation was difficult to resist. Destructive Obedience:obedience that leads to harmful or unethical behaviors occurs when individuals prioritize obedience to authority over their own moral judgment or empathy towards others Contributing factors: 1. Perceived Legitimacy of Authority - when individuals perceive the authority figure as legitimate and credible - more likely to obey 2. Gradual Commitment - can escalate gradually, with small initial requests leading to larger and more extreme actions - become progressively desensitized to the harmful nature of their actions 3. Diffusion of Responsibility - bcz they don't feel responsible for their actions - easy to obey 4. Conformity to Group Norms: others within a group obey, they also obey 5. Fast paced events - less time to consider options, more likely to obey Factors to reduce destructive obedience: to be aware and remind others of- 1. Assume shared responsibility for actions 2. Beyond a point, obedience is inappropriate 3. Question authority motives 4. Spread awareness to public on this topic |
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Social psychology
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a scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and cause of an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions in social situations.
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Systematic observation
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observe only desired variable
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Survey methods
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census, questionnaire, interview
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Correlational method
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observing 2 or more variables to determine if changes in one accompanies changes in the other
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Experimentation
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testing if IV influences DV
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Cross cultural research
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self promotion
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convey positive info about one's behavior or accomplishment to others
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self verification
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emphasizing a part of yourself that you want others to see and underplay other traits
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ingratiation
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flattery - 3 types: acquisitive (to obtain smth), protective (to prevent negative consequence), significance (to gain reapect/approval)
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modesty/self deprecation
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underrepresenting positive traits to be humbler
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exemplification
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strategy a person uses to make other people regard them as highly moral and virtuous
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intimidation
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produces fear and gains power by convincing others they are powerful and/ or dangerous
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self handicapping
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creating an obstacle to his or her own performance - 2types: self reported (complaints), behavioural (drugs, alcohol)
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supplication
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advertise weakness hoping for solicit help for sympathy out of a sense of social obligation
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Theory of reasoned action
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decision to engage in a particular behavior = alternate options + consequences - leads to behavioral intentions - influences overt behavior
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Theory of planned behavior
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Theory of reasoned action + one's ability to perform that behavior
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Intentions are determined by 3 factors (Ajzen,1991) - Attitudes toward the behavior, Subjective norms, Perceived behavioral control
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Attitude-to-behavior process model (Fazio, 1990)
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attitude + stored knowledge of appropriateness in given situation - influences overt behavior
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Festinger (1954) suggested that people compare themselves to others because they want to evaluate themselves in terms of opinions, values, capabilities, achievements etc
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upward
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compare ourselves with those who we believe are better than us
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downward
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compare ourselves to others who appear to be worse off than us
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horizontal
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comparing with one's peers for the purpose of self-enhancement and emotional well-being
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Theory of reasoned action
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decision to engage in a particular behavior = alternate options + consequences - leads to behavioral intentions - influences overt behavior
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Theory of planned behavior
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Theory of reasoned action + one's ability to perform that behavior
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How we think abt the social world, our attempts to understand it, how we gain info from it and our place in it.
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Schemas
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mental framework we use to organise info, process info wrt context and guide our actions
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Heuristics
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mental shortcuts (simple rules used to make complex decisions or draw inferences in a rapid and efficient manner)
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Optimistic bias
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tendency to overlook risks and expect things to turn out well - can lead to unrealistic expectations and poor decision-making
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Overconfidence barrier
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tendency for individuals to be overly confident in their own abilities and judgments
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Caputo & Dunning (2005) - we may be over confident because:
1. We lack critical info (we don't know enough to know what we have missed) 2. Error of omission (we don't do something that must be done) |
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Planning fallacy
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tendency to underestimate the time, resources, and effort required to complete a task
more focus on getting task done than the steps to do it prediction and motivation - key aspects |
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Counterfactual thinking
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imagine alternative outcomes to past events (what ifs)
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Magical thinking
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belief that some consequences are beyond one's control - external locus of control (eg: superstition, karma),
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Terror management
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ways in which individuals cope with the awareness of their own mortality (they will die) - leads to increased preference to shared beliefs, engaging in risky behavior (yolo)
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process by which individuals interpret, analyze, and make sense of social information
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Nonverbal Communication
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facial expressions, gestures (body movements), posture, eye contact, proxemics, touch
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negative facial expressions are easier and quicker to notice than neutral or smiling faces
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extent a person’s neutral facial expression resembles an actual emotion is interpreted as them showing that emotion
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis William James (1894)- facial expressions are not only external signs of internal states, they can also trigger or influence internal emotional experiences
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Definition
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intentional use of power or dominance to harm, intimidate, or control others
form of aggressive behavior typically occurs in a social context where there is an imbalance of power between the bully and the victim |
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Types
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verbal (spoken/written threats)
physical (beating, kicking etc) relational/social (to harm reputation - rumors, exclusion) cyber (digial/social media) sexual (inappropriate touching, jokes etc) |
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Why do people bully
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Power and Control
Insecurity and Low Self-esteem Desire for Attention or Popularity Modeling Behavior |
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Characterstics of bullies
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lower in self-esteem, aggress against others to build up their self-image
believe that others are not to be trusted low tolerance for change/diversity bad at managing -ve emotions |
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Characteristics of victims
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may be physically or socially weaker
lack of assertiveness display signs of fear, anxiety no social support history of bullying |
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How to deal with bullying
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authorities (parents, supervisors, teachers etc) must pay attention and stand against it
victims must be told exactly what to do and whom to inform |
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Cognitive process
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what we know and how our behavior changes
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Biological factors
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influence of inherited traits in social situations
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Other people
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their actions and characters
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environmental variables
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teperature, transport, social conflicts etc
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Psychological method validation
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checking applicability and generalizability of the test
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Indigenous cultural studies
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study of minority ethnic groups in their native location
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Cross-cultural comparisons
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comparing findings of two or more cultures
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maximises variables
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increases inter culture awareness
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helps separate variables
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reduce bias in research
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searate behavior from context
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apply theories in different norms
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check generalizability
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identify influence of culture on behavior
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determine if measurable tests and tools are applicable to other countries
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Introspection
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privately contemplating 'who we are'
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From Other's standpoint
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seeing ourselves from an observer’s perspective
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Explicit
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consious, controllable, easy to notice and report
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Implicit
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unconscious evaluation towards objects or self
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Attitude extremity
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how much the situation effects or interests you (vested interest)/how strong ur emotional reaction is
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Attitude certainity
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2 types - attitude correctness and attitude clarity
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Attitude correctness
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extent to which an attitude aligns with objective reality or with the views of others
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Attitude clarity
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clear and consistent understanding of one's attitude, including its strength, importance, and the reasons behind it
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Personal experience
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Attitudes formed on the basis of direct experience are likely to be stronger
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Situational constrains and Consistency
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we continue to have same attitudes for a long period of time
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aims to predict the circumstances under which individuals think of themselves as individuals or as group
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Social categorization
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process by which people group others into categories based on shared characteristics
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Social comparison
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process by which people evaluate themselves and their social identities by comparing themselves to others in their in-group or out-group
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Social identification
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process by which an individual associates themselves with a particular social group and adopts the norms, values, and beliefs of that group as part of their self- concept
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Social competition
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rivalry that exists between individuals or groups competing for social status, resources, or recognition
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Social creativity
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ability of individuals or groups to generate new and innovative ideas, solutions, or products that are valued by society
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Individual mobility
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allows people to pursue individual position improvement irrespective of the group
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We use heuristics when there is:
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Info overload
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when our ability to process info is exceeded
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Conditions of uncertainity
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when it takes lot of effort and time to understand a situation/problem
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Types of heuristics:
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Representativeness heuristic
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judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it fits with our prototype and stereotype
Can cause error due to ignoring base rates leads to base rate fallacy (actual frequency or probability of an event based on statistical information) |
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Availability heuristic
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estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily we can recall or retrieve examples of it from memory - ease of retrieval
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Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
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involves using an initial starting point (the "anchor") and then adjusting our estimate based on additional information
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Status Quo Heuristic:
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belief that the current situation is the norm, and any change from that norm may be risky or uncertain - hesitant to make changes
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Positive mood
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view everything (situation, people, ideas) in +ve terms, more likely to judge info as true, increases confidence in our understanding of the world and actions of people, can result in less accuracy
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Mood congruence effects
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more likely to store or remember positive information when in a positive mood and vice versa
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Mood dependent memory
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what we remember while in a given mood may be determined by what we learned when previously in that mood
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Creatvity
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+ve mood activates wider range of ideas, associations - increasing creativity
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Heuristics
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+ve mood = more likely to engage in heuristics to deal with current issues
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Understanding motives of people
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Positive affect tends to promote attributions of positive motives and vice versa
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refers to the tendency for individuals to exert less effort or contribute less to a group task when working collectively compared to when working individually
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occurs when individuals feel that their individual efforts will be less noticeable/important in a group, leading to a dec in motivation and productivity
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additive tasks
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tasks in which the contributions of individual group members can be combined to create an overall group performance (group projects, brainstorming sessions etc)
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Tips to reduce social loafing-
1. Clearly Define Individual Roles - so that output and effort is readily identifiable 2. Establish Group Identity and Cohesion - built group identity by communicating, collaborating etc 3. Enhance Task Significance - Emphasize the importance and meaningfulness of the task 4. Give a standard for the performance |
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individuals' performance on a task is influenced by the presence of others
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can lead to improved performance on simple / well-practiced tasks (facilitation effect) and decreased performance on complex/ novel tasks (inhibition effect)
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Drive Theory of Social Facilitation
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the presence of others increases physiological arousal and this strengthens the tendency to perform dominant responses
If the dominant response is a well-learned or automatic behavior, such as a simple task, the presence of others will facilitate performance and improve outcomes. However, if the dominant response is more complex or unfamiliar, the presence of others can lead to heightened anxiety and hinder performance. |
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Evaluation apprehension theory
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presence of others enhances performance because individuals are concerned about being evaluated or judged- motivated to perform well to avoid negative evaluations and gain social approval
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Distraction Conflict Theory
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presence of others creates a conflict between attending to the task at hand and attending to the social stimuli - attentional focus is divided between the task and the social context, leading to increased arousal and decreased performace (for complex tasks)
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Psychology of personality
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Applied psychology
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Psychological cognition
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Sociology
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Biology
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Anthropology
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Economics
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Political science
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International relations
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Communication science
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Leadership science
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Philosophy
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Education
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Health sciences
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we can perceive ourselves differently at any given moment in time, depending on where we are on the personal-versus-social identity continuum
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personal identity
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comparisons with others in the same group (intragroup comparisons)
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social identity
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comparing our group with other groups (intergroup comparisons)
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contextual
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diff personalities in diff situations
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distinctive
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if you're a minority, you represent your entire population
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important to the self
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personal traits more than social traits
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linguistics
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more adjectives to explain personal identity
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overall attitude people hold toward themselves
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Key elements:
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Self-confidence
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Sense of belonging
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Feelings of security
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Identity
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Feeling of competence
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Self-awareness
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realistic personal expectations
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Good expression of needs
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sensitivity to Criticism
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social Withdrawal
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hostility - defense mech
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excessive Preoccupation with Personal Problems
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physical Symptoms
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alcohol abuse, drug use
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mental issues
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depression, anxiety, and anorexia
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Age
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SES
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Genetics
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Disability
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Illness
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Cuture
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Discrimination
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Social learning
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learning through social interaction -acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people
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Observational learning
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learning by observing others' behavior, without necessarily interacting with them
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Social comparison
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comparing ourselves to others to evaluate our social reality
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Reference groups
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people with whom we identify and whose opinions we value
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Classical Conditioning
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Learning Based on Association
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Subliminal conditioning
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Classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals’ threshold of conscious awareness
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Mere exposure effect
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people tend to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them
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Illusion of truth effect
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tendency of people to believe something to be true simply because they have heard it before
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Instrumental conditioning
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Attitudes that are followed by positive outcomes tend to be strengthened and negative weakened
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individual’s sense of self, defined by a set of unique physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics
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Distinctiveness
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Continuity
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same over time
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coherence
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same in diff situations (school, home)
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expansion on erikson's theory
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identity formation during adolescence involves both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations
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high exp - HE
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low exp - LE
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high com - HC
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low com - LC
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identity diffusion
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LC,LE - identity crisis
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identity foreclosure
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HC,LE - peer/parental pressure
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Identity moratorium
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LC,HE - precursor to identity achievement
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Identity achievement
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HC,HE - stable self-definition
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Influence of schemas on 3 basic processes - consistent and strongly inconsistent schemas receive more attention, encoding and retrieval
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Attention
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refers to what info we notice and what enters our consciousness
more frequently used when there's cognitive overload (trying to handle lot of info) |
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Encoding
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process through which info we notice gets stored in memory
Info sharply inconsistent with our schemas get stored in a separate memory location |
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Retrieval
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how we recover information from memory
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Concepts related to schemas:
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Priming
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when one stimulus triggers retrieval of another similar schema
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Unpriming
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how previous schema is deactivated or supressed in memory - when contradicted or through passage of time
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Perseverance effect
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tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even in the face of contradictory info - as schemas bias attention, memory etc
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Automatic processing
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performing task with rapid, effortless, and unconscious manner after extensive experience - allows individuals to quickly categorize and make judgments but can also cause bias
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Two-factor theory of emotion (Schachter, 1964) - we infer the nature of our feelings and attitudes from the external world (cognitive appraisal)
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Activate schemas containing strong affective component (eg: how we feel with in-grp id diff from our feelings to out-grp)
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Affective forecasts - Predictions about how we would feel about events we have not actually experienced can influence affect
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efforts to understand the causes behind ones' and others’ behavior
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frustration agression hypothesis
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frustration is a very powerful determinant of aggression
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excitation transfer theory
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arousal from one situation can cause intense reactions in a later, unrelated event
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TASS model
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Traits as Situational Sensitivities (TASS)
personality traits (like agression) only influence behavior when specific situations activate/ evoke them |
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biological factors
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genetic predispositions, hormonal influences (such as testosterone), brain abnormalities or imbalances, and neurological conditions
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provocation
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condescension (showing aggrogance/disdain to others), mocking, harsh and unjustified criticism, teasing
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culture
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some cultures find agression acceptable in response to insult of honor
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sexual jealousy
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individuals perceive a threat to their relationship or when they experience feelings of inadequacy or betrayal
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biological factors
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genetic predispositions, hormonal influences (such as testosterone), brain abnormalities or imbalances, and neurological conditions
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gender differences
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men show more physical agression, women show relational agression (social exclusions, rumors)
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manhood
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agression can be a defence when their manhood is challenged or they feel inadequate
traditional masculinity expects men to be more agressive in nature |
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narcissism
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narcissists show agression if their ego or self-image is threatened
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substance abuse
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under the influence
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temperature
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men show more physical agression, women show relational agression (social exclusions, rumors)
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sexual jealousy
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individuals perceive a threat to their relationship or when they experience feelings of inadequacy or betrayal
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manhood
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agression can be a defence when their manhood is challenged or they feel inadequate
traditional masculinity expects men to be more agressive in nature |
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temperature
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hotter temp is linked to more agression
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failures, inconveniences'
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invalidation, injustice, betrayal, disrespect
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hostile agression
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prime objective is to inflict harm on victim
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instrumental agression
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primary goal is to attain some other goal—eg, access to valued resources
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Cheatography n. The art of mapping complex subjects into clear, instantly navigable reference guides.
