Willhelm Wundt
1879
first psychology lab in Leipzig Germany
Structuralist
youtube:lWv3tQUY-9k
It's all about STRUCTURE
Structuralists believe consciousness = basic elements combine to make different perceptions. Wanted to discover form of mental experience.
Introspection reporting own conscious thoughts and feelings
Wundt, Titchener
Yale Univ Psychology classes
youtube:P3FKHH2RzjI&list=PLQBxBn90xZaIvS5gxsvErSm7cV8BKuClx
Research Methods
independent variable = cause
experimental group = exposed to cause
control group = not exposed to cause
dependent variable = effect (measures how subjects behave)
blind study = subjects don't know if they get drug or placebo
double-blind study = subjects & researchers don't know who gets drug/placebo
correlation coefficient = describes strength of relationship
Consciousness
Consciousness = a state of being aware and reflecting on the environment around us, not simply reacting to it
Circadian rhythm = predictable factors of the human body "through the day"
circa around, dian day
Brain
Brainstem (Medulla) = breathing & heartbeat
Reticular formation = arousal, sleep, filters stimuli
Cerebellum = voluntary movement
limbic system (Hippo HAT)
- HIPPOcampus = memory
- Hypothalamus = hunger, thirst, sexual behavior
- - pituitary gland = hormones
- Amygdala = fear, anger
- Thalamus = touch, taste, sight, hear
Crash Course Video - know your brain
Limbic System
Hippo
H
A
T
Hippocampus (campus = learning/memories)
Hypothalamus (FFFF = Fight, Flight, Feed, Mating)
Amygdala (emotions)
Thalamus (Tell 'em = senses (except for smell))
youtube:GDlDirzOSI8
Brain Power
motor & sensory homunculus = proportionate representation of the brain’s dedication to the parts of the body responsible for motor functionality.
The more brain power involved in the planning, execution and control of a body part’s movements, the larger the body part is on the clay figure, thus giving a simple, yet accurate visual representation of the brain’s dedication to different areas of motor function.
http://leesalittle.com/tag/cortical-homunculus/
Sleep
When awake the brain produces alpha waves which are relatively slow
stage 1 breathing slows with irregular, erratic brain waves. alpha waves cease and are replaced with theta waves
Stage 2 deeper relaxation/occasional bursts of rhythmic waves "sleep spindles" and K-complexes
Stage 3 large slow delta waves. transition to Stage 4
Stage 4 stronger more consistent delta waves. These last 2 stages are referred to as slow-wave sleep
REM Sleep dreams
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia = recurring difficulty falling asleep.
Narcolepsy = sudden and uncontrollable attacks of sleep during waking hours.
Sleep apnea = stop breathing during sleep which wakes them long enough to breathe. This can occur 100's of times a night
Gestalt
theory of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology.
Gestalt psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world.
Roots in theories by Hume, Goethe, Kant.
Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts.
Perceptual Sets
predispositions to perceive one thing and not another.
Crying baby girl - weak & scared
Crying baby boy - strong and mad
Expect the mail man and hear noises but he is not there.
youtube:n46umYA_4dM
Phi Phenomenon
optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession
Youtube video for more about
Gestalt psychology
Signal Detection Theory
ability to notice stimulus varies with psychological factors including motivation, past experience, expectations
youtube:gRQmTp6W3UA
Theories of emotion
Cannon-Bard: crazed dog = Arousal & Fear
James-Lange: crazed dog = arousal THEN fear
Two-Factor: crazed dog = Arousal & Label (cognitive) THEN fear
Canon-Bard Theory
see stimulus - generates arousal & emotional experience at the same time. Information to sympathetic nervous system (arousal) and cortex (subjective experience)
Dog growls = heart rate increases + realize I'm afraid
James-Lange Theory
see it = feel emotion = become afraid because I feel my heart pounding
Without arousal I wouldn't be afraid
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
Stanley Schacter's
Emotions experienced depend on how arousal is labeled. What makes each experience different is what you call it.
If you decide you're aroused because someone insulted you = angry
Noam Chomsky
Language development children have language acquisition device - universal built in mental system that steers us toward interpreting and using language in particular ways.
youtube:Zg1bHzBoggk
A good video describing his theory (1:47 BBC):
Noam Chomsky on Language Aquisition
Memory
Sensory fleeting awareness of what senses detect
short term (working) keep information long enough to solve problems
long term unlimited storage
Charles Spearman
Labeled general intelligence "g" factor
Cognitive
youtube:-hMhpB8ikR8
Joy Paul Guilford
United States psychologist, best remembered for his psychometric study of human intelligence, including the distinction between convergent and divergent production
Convergent thinking generally means the ability to give the "correct" answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity, for instance in most tasks in school and on standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence.
Divergent thinking = creativity = thinking "outside the box"
Psychological Disorders - Origins
Medical - caused by biological reasons (injury, genetics, drugs)
Psychoanalytic - childhood conflicts, unconscious, misdirected anger
Cognitive - patterns of thinking are abnormal, success because of others (luck, generous), fail because of self (stupid, no talent)
Learn/Behavior - problem behavior is the problem, some type of classical conditioning or reinforcement has occurred for behavior to continue
Erikson's 8 Stages of Development
youtube:3BcwntGAB34
1. Nurturing = trust vs mistrust (baby-1yr)
2. Autonomy vs shame doubt (toddler-2 yr)
3. initiative vs guilt (preschool 3-5 yrs)
4. industrious vs inferior (6-12 yrs)
5. identity vs role confusion (12-18)
6. intimacy vs isolation (18-40)
7. generativity vs stagnation (40-65)
8. integrity vs despair (65 & up)
Kohlberg
3 stages of moral development
1. Pre-moral a. Obedience v.s. development
2. Conventional c. good boy, girl-boys and girls are good so they are seen as being a good person. d. law and social order start
3. Post-conventional e. Social Contract f. universal ethical principle
PERSONALITY - Individual Difference
youtube:oWpRKJPCI7M
Measure ways people differ
Traits - patterns of behavior
Alport (boy on train) to Freud
Define personality - stable/lasting behavior patterns/motivations.
Eyesneck - stable/unstable, introvert/extrovert
Big 5 Traits OCEAN
1. openness - questioning, independent, curious
2. consciousness - dependable, self control
3. extraversion - outgoing, socially adept
4. agreeableness - conforming, likeable
5. neuroticism - excitability, anxiousness
Psychological Therapies
Psychoanalytic developed by Freud. Problems from urges vs. social pressure. repressed behavior in childhood. Help individual recognize conflict, make it conscious & deal with it in socially acceptable way. - Free association "patient"
Humanistic help people achieve insight to causes of behavior, emphasize life now and future. "client". Client-centered therapy non directive. people have own insight. provide positive regard & environment. active listening
Cognitive change thinking so see world accurately & react rationally
Learning/Behavioral
Biological/Medical drugs surgery alter brain functions
THERAPY - Biological Medical Approach
Rely on drugs or surgery. Alter the way brain functions
Depression = low serotonin neurotransmitter
Anti-depressants (Prozac, Pail, Zoloft) prevent re-uptake of serotonin (SSRI) result in elevated mood
Anti-anxiety drugs (Librium, Valium) reduce arousal, depress activity in CNS
Anti-psychotics (Clozapine, Thorazine) treat symptoms of schizophrenia. block operation of neurotransmitter dopamine
Barbiturates (tranquilizer) (opiate)
Opiates = opium, decreases nervous system, addictive, side effects
Aging Theories
Disengagement - mutual withdrawal
Activity - keep active and age well
Hierarchy of Needs
proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological & fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality
studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein & the healthiest 1% of the college student population
largest, most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top
Statistics
descriptive statistics (mean, median mode)
Standard deviation - index of how widely scattered scores tend to be around mean
Inferential statistics allow inferences about populations based on sample. Use statistical significance as some differences could have happened by chance.
Coefficient near .00 if correlated by chance.
Bigger the coefficient is for the sample, the more reliable correlation.
Coefficients > +.70 are generally reliable. (+ or - correlation)
Stanley Milgram Obedience Experiment (May, 1962)
youtube:DZ-F6Waua3Y
0:00-9:15 Introduction and instruction
9:26-12:05 First test subject
12:05-16:02 Second test subject
16:02-21:58 Explanation and procedure
21:58-39:18 Third test subject
39:18-44:19 Review and variations of tests
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - Cognition
how we process information about others
Attribution theory - explanations generated for others behavior
- dispositional (internal) - explain behavior inside person (personality, intelligence, maturity)
- situational (external) - explain behavior outside (luck, interference from others, social etiquette)
actor-observer difference - observers attribute others' behavior to dispositions but own behavior to situations. Actor more aware than others of how his behavior changes from 1 situation to another
cognitive dissonance theory - behave inconsistent with attitudes = dissonance (unpleasant tension) must explain behavior due to situation
Sensory Adaptation & Habituation
youtube:PnKSA6fGp6w
Sensory Adaptation - neural receptors reduce sensitivity to continual stimulus (ie - adapt hot/cold water after brief time, eyes adjust dark room (cones 10 min, rods 30), smell own house)
Habituation - decreased response to stimulus after repeated behavior, used to elicit stronger response (alcohol 1st drink vs alcoholic taking a drink, favorite food, living near train track)
sensitization repeated intense stimulus increases response to weaker
Informational Social Influence Theory
4:35 Foot in the Door
5:30 Stanford Prison Experiment
8:00 Festinger's Theory of Cognitive Dissonance - when our thoughts differ from others we feel discomfort we want to resolve
youtube:h6HLDV0T5Q8
Informational Social Influence Theory - When we are not sure what to do we copy other people, especially in crisis or if the other person is an expert
Rorschach
Ink Blot tests. Schizophrenics were found to answer questions about ink blot cards very differently than most people.
A neat jpg of the cards as well as common answers can be found
here.
Edward Thorndike
Cats & puzzle boxes.
youtube:fanm--WyQJo
Thorndike studied instrumental conditioning, which involves an increase in the probability of a response occurring as a result of a positive outcome. This type of learning would come to be called operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner.
Law of Effect behavior changes because of consequences
Yerkes-Dodson Law
moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance
youtube:8CA6Di3ix0k
Functionalism and Structuralism
youtube:qBe9qjX-Ahg
Edward Titchener 1867-1927
First Psychology lab in the U.S. (1892 Professor at Cornell)
Studied under Wundt
Structuralism, Stimulus Error, Introspection
Analyze mind
1. identify structure elements
2. how they are grouped
3. cause of specific arrangement of elements
youtube:EzQ9D5nm_wE
7 Perspectives
Neuroscience = physical & brain (makes emotions/memories)
Evolutionary = Darwinism, survival of fittest, inherited behavior
Social-cultural = society & culture contribute to behavior
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Cognitive
Humanistic
B.F. Skinner
youtube:T-d6jypCsUw
Behaviorism, -1960's
behavior of organisms
Blank Slate = molded by environment..
Pigeon operant conditioning, reward system
Brain Organization
Cerebral cortex (outer cover) = motor, cognitive, sensory processes
Left/Right Hemispheres
Frontal Lobes = coordinating movement in higher level thinking (planning & predicting consequences of behaviors)
- Wernicke's area = language comprehension
- Broca's area = speech production
Parietal lobes - top of head, behind frontal lobes = touch, hands/feet
Temporal lobes - above parietal, sides of ears = hearing
Occipital lobes - base of skull in back = vision (ocular)
Left & Right Brain
Very interesting!
youtube:82tlVcq6E7A
Biological Approach
focus on understanding how physiological & biochemical processes = psychological phenomena
genes, nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters
RESOURCES
Link to
Quizlet cards about Psychology vocabulary words.
Sleeping
youtube:rMHus-0wFSo&index=9&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJY-uHOH9KVU6
Sleeping Disorders. What happens when you sleep.
Mike Birbiglia talks about his sleepwalking disorder. Funnny!
Dream Theories
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Freud
manifest content of latent desires. Disguising the wish dreamer avoids anxiety
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Activation synthesis theory
brain's neurons fire randomly during sleep, as we wake, construct dream to make sense of images
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Information processing
way to consolidate information, sort thru day's events
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Physiological Functions
dreams stimulate the brain which may help build neural connections
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Gestalt
Gestalt psychologists rules for brain piecing together meaningful experiences from fragments of sensation.
youtube:ZWucNQawpWY
Perception
Gestalt (German for "a whole" or "form") Psychologists were among the first to study how the brain makes things from fragments of sensations.
Depth perception-
both eyes work together to gather Binocular cues, which use the space between the eyes (retinal disparity) and how much the eyes turn inwards, towards the nose (convergence) to roughly estimate distance.
Monocular cues=one eye.
Linear perspective=parallel lines appear to converge.
Motion parallax-refers to apparent movement of stable objects as we move.
Perceptual sets: predispositions to percieve one thing and not another will affect the way reality is viewed
Sensation & Perception
Sensation - Bottom up (vision, hearing, smell) receive and relay outside information to the brain
Perception - Top Down brain interprets & organizes that information
youtube:unWnZvXJH2o&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJY-uHOH9KVU6&index=5
Motion parallax
Apparent movement of stable objects as we move. Drive down the road and close objects appear to be moving backward and the nearer they are the faster they move. Far away objects move with you but more slowly as they get farther away.
Youtube video for more about
Motion parallax
RESOURCES
CLEP® Introductory Psychology Book + Online (CLEP Test Preparation)
Code inside front cover gives you access to online tests. Practice tests 1 & 2 are the same online as in the back of the book but the online resource gives you an assessment test which is a bit shorter than the other 2 which are 95 questions each.
Prospagnosia
HERE is a very interesting article about Prosopagnosia (Face Blindness).
Includes information about: Broca, Wernicke, deja vu, Capgras syndrome
By Oliver Sacks
Invisible Gorilla
Attention, intuition
youtube:16&v=UtKt8YF7dgQ
Cognitive Approach
reaction to behaviorism
Focus on explain behavior in terms of expectations, feelings, thoughts
problem solving, attention, expectations, memory, thought processes
Jean Piaget
Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage (0-2) can't differentiate self from environment
preoperational (2) stable world, language, symbols, fantasy/reality, object permanence, no logical reasoning, lack conservation, egocentric
concrete op. (7-11) logic rules, concrete, cause/effect, role taking
formal op. (12-) logic of science, abstract thinking, metaphors
assimilation = interpret sights based on current understanding
accommodation = changed understanding
equilibrium = balance
disequilibrium = changes in child's understanding of world
Jean Piaget
youtube:TRF27F2bn-A
Piaget's Schema, Assimilation, Equilibrium
youtube:3-A9SgbAK5I
Schema = building block of knowledge
Assimilation = using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation
Equilibrium = child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation
Accommodation = existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation
Franz Mesmer
18th century hypnotist
Trying to help patients with medical issues
Aligned their "magnetic forces" = animal magnetism
Hypnotized people fill social role (role play) behavior controlled by normal, conscious processes. Now used for pain control.
Psychological Disorders
youtube:wuhJ-GkRRQc&spfreload=10
Intelligence
youtube:9xTz3QjcloI
Spearman "g" factor, factor analysis, spatial numeric reasoning,
Thurstone - psychometrics, 7 clusters of mental abilities
Gardner - multiple abilities in different forms, savant syndrome, , 8 intelligences
Sternberg - 3 intelligences, analytical, creative, practical
divergent thinking, emotional intelligence, eugenics,
Alfred Binet - mental age test (IQ)
Personality Theories
Social Cognitive
Individual Difference Trait
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
youtube:sUrV6oZ3zsk
PERSONALITY - Social Cognitive
Cognition. Proposed by "Bobo" Bandura
Interaction between traits & social contexts
Watch & imitate others & think about how that affects us.
We are creators & products of the situations we surround ourselves with.
Personal control = how much control we have over our environment.
Reciprocal determinism - how people think and behave in their environment interacts to influence consistency of behavior
PERSONALITY - Humanistic
People basically good
Carl Rogers "Self Theory" - person centered
true self - talents, thoughts, desires, feelings
self concept - what we think we are like
ideal self - what we think we would like to be
self actualization - accept who you are
conditions of worth - hinder self actualization
Self Esteem literature
Maslow rejected standard tests and measured self concept through therapy and questionaires.
THERAPY - Psychoanalytic Approach
THERAPY - Learning/Behavioral
behavior modification
Use classical & operant conditioning to change problem behaviors directly. Believe many were conditioned to begin with so can be "un" conditioned.
Counterconditioning conditioning a new response incompatible with old
systematic desensitization relaxation replaces anxiety systematically
flooding go straight into the fearful situation. CR is extinguished
aversive conditioning unpleasant response associated (alcohol + drug creating nausea UR & CR)
token economy give token (poker chip/gold star) when desired behavior performed. tokens cashed in for tangible rewards
Nervous System
Graded potential, action potential, refractory period
youtube:OZG8M_ldA1M
Testing Reliability
Test-retest reliability, internal consistency, split-half reliability
youtube:erRnFk0s9h8
Cronbach's alpha - measures reliability (.70 or higher)
Validity, face valitidy (content), Predictive validity, construct validity
Standardized
see Quizlet cards for definition of terms
Diathesis-Stress Theory
Genetic predisposition (diathesis) + environmental factors (stress) = mood disorders
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - Social Influence
direct/indirect pressures exerted by others to change one's behavior
foot-in-the-door technique - get compliance with small request first
door-in-the-face technique - make request so big it's turned down, then on to smaller request
lowballing - get commitment then increase effort/cost required to fulfill
conformity - change behavior to follow group norms
- Solomon Asch researcher used confederates to influence study results
- Stanley Milgram researcher people susceptible to demands of authority
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - Aggression & Altruism
frustration-aggression hypothesis aggression is always product of frustration and frustration leads to aggression (wrong, sometimes frustration= cry)
more testosterone = more aggression
aggressive cues - guns, knives, black clothing = higher levels of aggression among provoked people = weapons effect
altruism
Kitty Genovese - raped and murdered 1964 in front of 38 witnesses who did not help (bystander effect)
social-exchange theory = maximize rewards minimize costs (minimax principle)
Encourage helping behavior: social responsibility norm help people who need it & reciprocity norm help people who help us. kin selection hypothesis helping family leads to our genes passed on
Whorfian Hypothesis
a theory in linguistics: one's language determines one's conception of the world
The strong version says that language determines thought, and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories, whereas the weak version says only that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior.
youtube:g0gkcY1SB-0
Interval Reinforcement
reinforcements after a response at end of a given time period
variable interval schedule time between reinforcements changes
fixed interval schedule occur on the same day each week
ratio schedules partial reinforcement schedules (reinforcement delivered based on the number of correct responses).
fixed ratio schedule correct number of responses required remains the same
variable ratio schedule number of required responses changes
Reinforcement
Something that feels good is reinforcement (not punishment)
Positive reinforcement - stimulus
a) presented
b) desirable
= feels good
(earn $1.00 for every magazine sold = sell more magazines)
negative reinforcement - stimulus
a) REMOVED
b) desirable
= feels good
(take aspirin to remove headache)
interval schedule = odds of reinforcement go up with passage of time
ratio schedule = odds of reinforcement go up depending on how many responses are made
variable ratio - number of responses needed vary from one win to the next
Drive
Drive = disrupts homeostasis
Instinct = complex behavior, unlearned, same throughout species (baby smiles when eating sweets)
drive reduction theory - physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) motivating fulfillment of the need -- homeostasis
How your ear works
Ear Drum
Ossicles (Hammer/Malleus, Anvil, Stirrup)
Cochlea (hair cells on basilar membrane) receptors for hearing
youtube:HMXoHKwWmU8
William James
Conscience and behavior helped people and animals adjust to the environment
Functionalist
Principles of Physiological Psychology (1st Psychology text book 1890)
Functionalist Approach
1890
William James - Father of modern Psychology
People function like a machine (industrial revolution)
Based on evolutionary thoughts (close to Darwin's "origin of species")
youtube:fBTHhnWQgHw
It's all about FUNCTION
How mental experiences were adaptive & functional for people.
Believed consciousness and behavior in general, helped people/animals adjust to environments. Understand "mind" = understanding what the mind has accomplished
William James
Behaviorist Approach
learned responses to predictable patterns of environmental stimuli
Pavlov (classical conditioning)
Skinner (operant conditioning)
study animals to apply to humans
Associative Learning
youtube:qG2SwE_6uVM
Subject links together certain events, behavior, stimuli in process of conditioning.
Classical Conditioning - Pavlovian, reflexive, elicited, pair 2 stimuli, CS + US, stimuli appear regardless of learner's behavior
Operant Conditioning - learning an association between stimulus and response (Reinforcement = increase in behavior Punishment=decreases behavior) BF Skinner
Observational Learning - we can learn by watching others
John B Watson
youtube:9hBfnXACsOI
1878 – 1958
Behaviorist. established the psychological school of behaviorism.
Conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising
"Little Albert" experiment (condition fear of a white rat into "Little Albert", an 11-month-old boy)
How your brain works
Priming, Fast brain, Slow brain
youtube:JiTz2i4VHFw
Neurons
Sensory (Afferent = To cell) receive info from senses
Motor (Efferent = Away from cell) from spine/brain to signal muscle contractions
.
youtube:x4PPZCLnVkA
Inter (Association = connecting) Think, see, perceive
Neurotransmitters
Electrical & chemical process
Dendrites, axon, myelin sheath
neuron rest = -70 mV
Glia = "neuronal glue" hold neurons together, provide nutrients
Neurotransmitters
youtube:W4N-7AlzK7s
Psychodynamic Approach
thoughts feelings behaviors come from interaction of drives & society restrictions on your ability to express them
Freud (sex/ aggressive drives most important) Much behavior unconscious & rooted in childhood
Sigmund Freud
1886 specialized in nervous disorders (talking cure)
free associate
Uber Coca 1st publication (about benefits of cocaine)
1900 interpretation of dreams psychoanalysis
ID - pleasure principle (immediate gratification, impulsive) (devil)
EGO - reality principle (mediates between id & superego) (self)
SUPEREGO - morality principle (social part, get along with others) (angel)
Phobia - cause when you want something you can't have
FREUD - Psychosexual Stages
Psychosexual stages
1. Oral stage
2. Anal stage
3. Phallic stage
youtube:ZWucNQawpWY
Defense Mechanisms
Freud
regression returning to earlier way of behaving (adult throwing temper tantrum)
rationalization attempts to justify irrational behavior with rational arguments
projection attributing characteristics you don't like in yourself to other people
reaction formation involve doing opposite of what you really want to do
Sublimation channeling of impulses or energies regarded as unacceptable, especially sexual desires, toward activities regarded as more socially acceptable, often creative activities
displacement anger is directed elsewhere not necessarily socially acceptably (kick the dog instead of your boss)
Humanistic Approach
people aren't merely machines with determined behaviors.
Motivated by desire for optimal growth and development
self-actualization
All have unique desires/skills/needs. Must be able to express them.
People basically good, focus on positive aspects of development.
Naturalistic Observation
inter-judge, inner-rater, inter-observer
Studied as occurs in real-life settings.
Eye
two photoreceptors in retina, rods & cones - change physical light energy into neural messages (transduction)
The rods more numerous, (120 million), & more sensitive than cones. But they're not sensitive to color.
The 6 to 7 million cones provide eye's color sensitivity. They're more concentrated in the central yellow spot (macula). In the center of that region is the "fovea centralis ", a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones.
Eye
iris = controls pupil size and amount of light
optic nerve = eye signals to brain
retina = light sensitive inner eye surface
lens = between pupil and retina, focuses light
Opponent Process Theory
There are some color combinations that we never see, such as reddish-green or yellowish-blue.
Opponent-process theory suggests that color perception is controlled by the activity of three opponent systems.
Three independent receptor types all have opposing pairs: white and black, blue and yellow, and red and green.
Young-Helmholte Theory
theory of color vision = the sensation of any color can be achieved by the superposition of pure red, green and blue colors
(video mentions color blindness)
youtube:Jzl9VPnA3OY
Sensation
Psychophisics-relating to sensation.
Absolute threshold = the intensity needed for stimulus to be detected 50% of the time it is presented
Just noticeable difference (jnd) or the difference threshold = minimum stimulation required for detection.
Weber's law = Difference is harder to detect in more intense stimuli.
Sensory adaptation = prolonged exposure to an unchanging stimulus causes nerves to fire less and detection diminishes.
Sensation=related to transforming energy from outside stimulus into neural energy to be used for perception.
Weber's Law
difference threshold increases in proportion to the intensity or magnitude of stimuli. Difference harder to notice with more intense stimuli than weaker ones.
youtube:wVhiezByMSU
Difference in 40 - 60 watt bulb compared to 70 - 90 watt bulb (20 watts difference)
"Vader's" Law :)
Heuristics
representative heuristic - how similar or "representative" one event is. Assessing similarity of objects and organizing them based around the category prototype.
availability heuristic - judging the likelihood that an event will happen from what has happened in he past
heuristics - judgmental shortcuts generally get us where we need to go – quickly – but at the cost of occasionally sending us off course
(algorithm - always produces the answer, but takes longer)
Psychological Disorders
Anxiety - dread, fear, terror
- Generalized - persistent but don't know source, sweaty palms, shake, nail bite
- Panic - sudden onset episodes
- OCD - thoughts & behavior
Mood - depression, mania or both
- Major - 2 weeks of sadness, hopeless, discouragement
- Bipolar
Dissociative - fragmented personality
- Amnesia - can't remember personal info
- Fugue - leaves work, confused, assumes new identity
- Identity Disorder (multiple personality)
Schizophrenia - hallucinations, delusions
- Paranoid - believe famous, delusions of grandeur or persecution
- Disorganized - disorganized speech, inappropriate behavior
- Catatonic - odd motor activity, echopraxia, echolalia
Somatoform - physical symptoms can't be explained medically
- Conversion - impaired motor/sensory function
- Hypochondria
Personality - behavior inconsistent to culture
- Paranoid - suspicious, distrustful (not delusional)
- Antisocial - impulsive, no conscience
- Borderline - relationship/self image problems
- Narcissistic - needs admiration
PERSONALITY - Psychoanalytic Psychodynamic
Jung, Adler, Horney, Erikson,
Rorschach-inkblot
Freud (sex, aggression) dream analysis
Freud and Jung - free association
Thematic Apperception Test: pictures you narrate
Behavior motivated by unconscious needs
People are basically bad
Alfred Binet
First to make intelligence test which determined test takers "mental" age. This has changed into the IQ test we are familiar with today.
A Method of Measuring the Development of Young Children
Early 1900s
mental age divided by chronological age X 100 = score
Flynn Effect
nurture refers to the effects of the environment on development
"secular rise in IQ scores"
substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day.
New test subjects take older tests, almost every case average scores are significantly above 100. Test score increases continuous & approx. linear from earliest years of testing to present
Carol Gilligan
attachment
Mother - imprint (Konrad Lorenz)
(Harry Harlow - experiments with monkeys and attachment to mothers)
Boys = justice
Girls = caring
moral development based on relationship with mothers
Altered States
youtube:9PW1fwKjo-Y
Hypnosis, Hallucinations, Psycoactive drugs (effect brain) (pain)
Dissociation - detach from surroundings while still conscious (split consciousness)
Depressants - alcohol, opiate, barb. (morphine, heroine)
- too much opiate ingestion and body stop making natural opiates (endorphins) = withdrawal
Stimulants - caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines (meth, ecstasy, cocaine)
Hallucinogens - plant, fungal, synthetic (LSD, psychedelics)
Pregnancy - First Trimester
Zygote = 1 cell, sperm & egg
Embryo = attaches to uterine wall
Fetus = movement occurs
Teratogen = substance that causes birth defects
reflexes = suck, swallow, touch
Infant Reflexes
Babinski, Moro, Palmar Reflexes
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Moro Reflex
Normal reflex in newborns - 3-4 months.
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Absence of reflex may suggest injury to bones or spinal cord.
AKA: Startle response; Startle reflex; Embrace reflex
Babinski Reflex
Normal in children up to 2 years old, disappears as the child gets older (maybe as early as 12 months)
Present in a child older than 2 years/adult, often a sign of a brain or nervous system disorder -
•Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig disease)
•Brain tumor or injury
•Meningitis
•Multiple sclerosis
•Spinal cord injury, defect, or tumor
•Stroke
MedlinePlus
Palmar Reflex
flexion of the fingers following tickling of the palm in infants.
Reappearance may be attributed to certain neurological conditions (dementia, lesions, stroke)
Helping Behaviors
Social Exchange Theory human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives
Social Responsibility norm obligation to act for the benefit of society at large
Bystander effect in a crowd, no one helps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgE5q5rDlaA
Reciprocity norm
We feel obligated to help those who have helped us.
The kin-selection hypothesis is one explanation.
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Frustration Agression Hypothesis
Frustration produces a readiness for aggression if triggered
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Sensory Memory
implicit (procedural) = being aware of how to do something without consciously know how
explicit (declarative) = being aware of what you know
iconic = brief photographic memory of an image
echoic = brief memory of an auditory stimulus
flashbulb = vivid memories of emotionally charged events
working = short-term memory
Motivation
Arousal Theory A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.
Instinct Theory all organisms are born with innate biological tendencies to help them survive. All behaviors are driven by instincts (goal-directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the result of learning or experience). (babies root)
Drive Reduction Theory physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) motivating fulfillment of the need -- homeostasis
Theory X type X individuals are inherently lazy and unhappy with their jobs. Therefore, an authoritarian management style is required to ensure fulfillment of the individuals' objectives.
Theory Y managers assume employees can be ambitious, self-motivated and exercise self-control. Employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties and for them, work is as natural as play
